Psych/Soc 2 - Learning, Memory, Cognition, Language, Intelligence

Learning & conditioning, memory systems, encoding strategies, retrieval, memory errors, memory storage & forgetting, aging & memory, memory disorders, cognition, problem-solving, decision-making, intelligence, intelligence theories, language, language & thought, brain & language

Learning

Process of acquiring new information or behaviors

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Stimulus that naturally triggers response

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Automatic response to US

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Neutral stimulus that becomes associated

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to CS

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments

Positive Reinforcement

Adding stimulus to increase behavior

Negative Reinforcement

Removing stimulus to increase behavior

Punishment

Adding/removing stimulus to decrease behavior

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others

Modeling

Imitating behavior

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire during observation and action

Bobo Doll Experiment

Demonstrated children imitate aggressive behavior

Learning-Performance Distinction

Knowing behavior ≠ performing it

Memory

Process of encoding, storing, retrieving information

Sensory Memory

Initial brief storage of sensory input

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory (~0.5 sec)

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory (~3–4 sec)

Working Memory

Temporary active processing system

Phonological Loop

Processes verbal information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Processes visual/spatial info

Central Executive

Controls attention and coordinates systems

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information for long-term storage

Magic Number 7

Working memory capacity (7 ± 2 items)

Long-Term Memory

Unlimited storage system

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall (declarative)

Semantic Memory

Facts and knowledge

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory

Procedural Memory

Skills and actions

Priming

Previous exposure influences response

Encoding

Converting information into memory

Rote Rehearsal

Repeating information (low effectiveness)

Chunking

Group information into meaningful units

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids (acronyms, imagery)

Method of Loci

Associate info with locations

Pegword System

Link numbers with rhyming words

Self-Referencing

Relating info to yourself

Spacing Effect

Studying over time improves retention

Dual Coding Hypothesis

Combining words + images improves memory

Retrieval

Accessing stored information

Free Recall

No cues provided

Cued Recall

Hints provided

Recognition

Identify correct answer

Primacy Effect

Better recall of early items

Recency Effect

Better recall of last items

Serial Position Effect

Combination of primacy + recency

Memory Reconstruction

Memories are altered when recalled

Schema

Mental framework shaping memory

False Memories

Inaccurate recollections

Misleading Information

Memory altered by wording

Source Monitoring Error

Forgetting source of memory

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid emotional memory

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synapses with repeated use

Synaptic Plasticity

Brain’s ability to change connections

Decay theory

Memory traces automatically fade or disintegrate over time, leading to forgetting if the info is not accessed or rehearsed

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

Rapid initial forgetting

Relearning (Savings)

Faster relearning of forgotten info

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with old

Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with new

Stable Memory

Implicit memory, recognition

Improved Memory

Semantic memory, crystallized intelligence

Declining Memory

Episodic memory, recall, processing speed

Prospective Memory

Remembering future tasks

Dementia

Severe memory loss affecting function

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive neuron degeneration

Amyloid Plaques

Protein buildup in brain

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

Memory disorder from vitamin B1 deficiency

Wernicke’s Encephalopathy

Early stage of Korsakoff’s

Confabulation

Filling memory gaps with false info

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of past memories

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Cognition

Mental processes of thinking and reasoning

Piaget’s Theory

Stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)

Sensorimotor Stage (0–2)

Develop object permanence

Object Permanence

Objects exist when unseen

Preoperational Stage (2–7)

Egocentrism, pretend play

Egocentrism

Inability to see others’ perspectives

Concrete Operational (7–11)

Logical thinking, conservation

Conservation

Quantity remains constant despite appearance

Formal Operational (12+)

Abstract reasoning

Well-Defined Problems

Clear solution path

Ill-Defined Problems

Unclear solution

Trial and Error

Trying multiple solutions

Algorithm

Step-by-step solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts

Means-End Analysis

Break problem into steps

Working Backwards

Start from goal

Intuition

Gut feeling decision

Fixation

Stuck on wrong approach

Insight

Sudden realization

Type I Error

False positive

Type II Error

False negative

Availability Heuristic

Judging based on easily recalled examples

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on similarity to prototype

Conjunction Fallacy

Assuming combined events are more likely

Overconfidence Bias

Overestimating ability

Belief Perseverance

Holding beliefs despite evidence

Confirmation Bias

Seeking supporting evidence