York's growing ambitions, 1454-60

Doubts About Henry VI

Although Henry VI had recovered, there were ongoing doubts about his health and ability to rule. Rumours continued about his competence.

the First Battle of St Albans (1455)

York and his supporters were angry at Somerset’s return to power and feared revenge from their political enemies.

As a result, in April 1455, York and his allies left the king’s court without permission.
This led to armed conflict, and on 22 May 1455 the two sides met at the First Battle of St Albans, often seen as the first real battle of the Wars of the Roses.

Victory of the First Battle of St Albans (1455)

The Yorkists won the battle against a force led (at least in name) by Henry VI.

Key Lancastrians that had died during the First Battle of St Albans (1455)

• The duke of Somerset

• Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, an old rival of Richard Neville

What did the First Battle of St Albans (1455) show?

The battle showed how dangerous the situation had become:

• Henry VI was wounded in the neck

• The duke of Buckingham, another leading Lancastrian, was wounded in the face

Henry was captured by the Yorkists. However, in a deliberate show of loyalty, York and his supporters knelt before the king and begged forgiveness, claiming they had only attacked “traitors” to the realm.

Political Significance of the First Battle of St Albans (1455)

York and his supporters wanted to make clear that they were loyal subjects, acting only to help the king govern effectively and justly, not to overthrow him.

Despite this, the threat to the Lancastrian regime was obvious.
This was made clear during a public reconciliation ceremony in London:

• Henry and York entered the city together

• At St Paul’s Cathedral, York handed Henry his crown during the service

The message was symbolic and powerful:

• York could give Henry the crown — and could also take it away

York’s Second Protectorate (1455–56): York as defender and protector of the realm

In the short term, York’s victory at the First Battle of St Albans restored him to the centre of political power.
In November 1455, this was made official when York was again appointed Defender and Protector of the Realm, because Henry VI was judged unfit to rule personally.
At the same time, Prince Edward’s position as heir was clearly reaffirmed.

York’s Second Protectorate (1455–56): Henry’s second breakdown

There is some evidence that Henry suffered another mental breakdown, making a Protector necessary.
However, historians disagree:

• Some argue that York exaggerated Henry’s illness to justify taking power.

• This seems unlikely, as the decision required the agreement of other lords and Parliament, not just York himself.

The Rise of Warwick

The main benefit York gained from the Second Protectorate was the rise of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick.

• Warwick had played a key role at St Albans, and may even have been personally responsible for killing Somerset.

• After the battle, he increasingly overshadowed his father, the earl of Salisbury.

• Historian A. J. Pollard describes Warwick as York’s “right-hand man.”

Warwick as Captain of Calais

As a reward for his loyalty, Warwick was appointed Captain of Calais, a position previously (and controversially) held by Somerset.

• This gave Warwick a major military command and a strong power base.

• Calais would become extremely important in supporting the Yorkist cause in the late 1450s.

Opposition of the Second Protectorate

Throughout the Second Protectorate, York faced strong opposition from Margaret of Anjou, who feared for the dynastic rights of her son, Prince Edward.
Many nobles were also uneasy about York’s growing power and refused to give him full support.

the End of the Second Protectorate

ome nobles were especially concerned that York might give in to pressure from the Commons in Parliament to pass an Act of Resumption, which would:

• Take back lands given away by Henry VI

• Threaten noble wealth and influence

As a result of this opposition, York was removed as Protector in February 1456, although he remained an important member of the king’s council.

York Develops His Powerbase (1456–59)

The years 1456–59 were marked by political tension and instability.
The Loveday celebrations of 1458 were a public attempt to show reconciliation between rival factions after the Battle of St Albans, but this peace did not last.

By 1459, Margaret of Anjou, her new ally Humphrey Stafford, duke of Buckingham, and the sons of nobles killed at St Albans convinced Henry VI that York was plotting to seize the throne.

The Coventry Council and Yorkist Defeat (1459)

In June 1459, a Great Council met at Coventry.

• Only Lancastrians were present, showing York’s political isolation.

• The council decided to accuse York and his supporters of treason.

• Buckingham raised an army against the Yorkists.

At this time:

• York stayed in the Welsh Marches, waiting for military support from the Nevilles.

• Neville forces were intercepted by Lancastrians, although Lord Audley, the queen’s commander, was killed at the Battle of Blore Heath.

Despite this, the Yorkists were still in a weak military position.
In October 1459, rather than face the king’s army at Ludford Bridge, they fled:

• York and his second son went to Ireland

• Salisbury, Warwick and Edward, earl of March, fled to Calais

The Parliament of Devils (November 1459)

Victorious, the Lancastrians took revenge at the “Parliament of Devils” in Coventry, November 1459.

In their absence:

• York, Warwick and Salisbury were convicted of treason

• They were sentenced to death

• Their lands and property were confiscated

Unusually, Parliament also ruled that their heirs could not inherit entailed estates.

• This broke long-standing custom

• It was widely seen as unjust

• It encouraged the Yorkists to seek revenge and restoration

The Yorkist Invasion of 1460: while they were in exile

While in exile, the Yorkists worked to build support and resources.

• Publicly, they claimed they only wanted to remove Henry’s “evil councillors”

• It is unclear whether York intended to claim the throne at this stage

The Yorkist Invasion of 1460: York in Ireland

Despite being declared a traitor, York:

• Negotiated with Anglo-Irish leaders

• At the Parliament of Drogheda (1460), he granted them greater political recognition and autonomy

• In return, he gained troops (especially archers) and resources

The Yorkist Invasion of 1460: Warwick in Calais

More important was Warwick’s power in Calais:

• Calais provided troops, a secure base, and control of the Channel

• Warwick raised money through piracy, mainly against the French

• This boosted his popularity in England, especially in London, where people were angry about:

  • Falling trade

  • Government policies favouring foreign merchants

Yorkist Return and Victory

Using propaganda, the Yorkists gained popular support.
In June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury and March landed at Sandwich in Kent and received strong backing:

• Especially in Kent (linked to Cade’s Rebellion)

• And in London

Lancastrian forces were defeated, and:

• Key Lancastrian leaders were killed

• Margaret of Anjou fled north with Prince Edward

York’s Claim to the Throne and the Act of Accord (1460)

York remained in Ireland and only returned to England around 9 September 1460.

• His delay is unclear and unexplained

• Soon after arriving, he began to act like a king

On 10 October 1460, York:

• Entered Parliament

• Placed his hand on the empty throne, clearly signalling a claim to the crown

However:

• The lords did not support him

• Even the Nevilles were surprised, as they had continued to claim loyalty to Henry VI

Many nobles were unwilling to support either side fully.
As a result, a compromise was reached: the Act of Accord (October 1460).

Terms of the Act of Accord

• Henry VI would remain king for life

• Prince Edward was disinherited

• York and his heirs would inherit the throne after Henry’s death

This would have ended the Lancastrian dynasty and closely resembled the Treaty of Troyes (1420).

Renewed War and York’s Death

Prince Edward was only seven years old, but:

• Margaret of Anjou sent a document in his name to London

• It asserted Lancastrian rights and called York a traitor

Lancastrian forces regrouped, and on 30 December 1460:

• York was attacked at the Battle of Wakefield

• York and his second son, Edmund of Rutland, were killed

• Salisbury was captured and later executed

As a warning to others:

• York was posthumously beheaded

• His head was displayed on the walls of York, wearing a paper crown