Foreign Policy 20th Century

What event launches US Imperialism?

• The Spanish-American War (1898) launched the U.S. into imperial competition

• They gained Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico

What fueled overseas expansion?

Religious and racial ideologies + economic motives.

What was Teddy Roosevelts methos for Int. Expansion?

• He used “Big Stick” diplomacy

• Roosevelt expanded U.S. naval power + directly intervened in Latin America gov’ts to protect U.S. interests.

• e.g. (1903) Supported Panama’s independence from Colombia in order to built the Panama Canal.

What was the Roosevelt Collary?

• Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine gave the U.S. the “right” to intervene preemptively in Latin America to prevent European involvement.

What were Taft’s foreign policy methods?

• Taft promoted U.S. investments abroad → expand influence without military force—“dollars over bullets.”

What were Wilson’s foreign policy methods?

• Wilson emphasized democracy and moral leadership

  • Believed capitalism could uplift poor nations + prevent revolution.

• Wilson still used intervention but framed U.S. expansion as reformist alternative to European imperialism.

What events led to US involvement in WWI?

• German submarine warfare + the Zimmermann Telegram led Wilson to ask Congress for a declaration of war in 1917.

  • Zimmermann Telegram: Secret 1917 message from Germany to Mexico proposing a military alliance against the U.S. in exchange for help reclaiming lost territories

What was Wilson’s initial stance during WWI?

Wilson initially maintained neutrality, promoting a “peace without victory.”

What were the main themes in Wilson’s 14 points?

• It was a statement of principles for peace.

• Wilson’s Fourteen Points (statement of principles for peace) wanted: self-determination, free trade, open diplomacy, + a League of Nations.

Why did the US senate reject the Treaty of Versailles?

• Treaty of Versailles included the League.

• U.S. Senate feared League would drag US into future EU conflicts.

What are example of US isolationism post WWI?

• U.S. avoided formal alliances but remained economically and culturally dominant.

• The Great Depression shifted focus to domestic recovery → Congress passed Neutrality Acts to prevent involvement in future wars.

  • Neutrality Acts: Series of US laws passed in the 1930s aimed at preventing the US from becoming entangled in foreign conflicts.

How did FDR attempt to resist fascism?

Expanded ties with the USSR + LATAM → Good Neighbor Policy (emphasizing non-intervention and mutual respect).

How did FDR bypass the Neutrality Acts?

• Roosevelt aided allies via the Lend-Lease Act, bypassing neutrality laws.

  • Lend-Lease: Allowed the United States to supply Allied nations with military aid and equipment during World War II without requiring immediate payment.

What brough the US into WWII?

U.S.-Japan tensions over Asian expansion + oil embargoes → Pearl Harbor attack.

How did FDR promote post WWII peace?

• Based on the Atlantic Charter (free trade, collective security, self-determination).

• At Yalta, he accepted Soviet control of Eastern Europe for strategic reasons 

  • → Grew wary of Stalin’s broken promises.

What was the Bretton Woods Agreements?

• Created the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and World Bank 

  • → Stabilize the global economy + promote development.

What was Truman Doctrine?

• (1947) Truman shifted to containment, warning against Soviet expansion.

  • TD: Policy pledging support—especially military and economic aid—to countries resisting communism, particularly Greece and Turkey.

What was the Marshall Plan?

(1948) Initiative to provide over $12 billion in economic aid to help rebuild Western European economies after World War II and prevent the spread of communism.

What was the Berlin Airlift and it’s impact?

• (1948) U.S. and Allied-led operation that flew food and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviet Union blockaded the city to force out Western powers.

• Deepened East-West divisions

What was the cold war?

• Standoff fueled by nuclear arms + ideological competition, 

  • Direct war avoided through threats o’ retaliation

How did the US indirectly fight with the USSR + resist communism?

• Fought proxy wars in the Third World to counter communism.

  • e.g. Korean War

What was the Korean War and was was the US’ involvement?

• After WWII, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel: the North under Soviet-backed communist leadership + the South under U.S.-supported capitalist leadership.

  • Both claimed legitimacy over the entire peninsula.

• The war resulted in heavy casualties + trench warfare, ending with a 1953 armistice establishing a demilitarized zone but no formal peace treaty.

• Post-war, the U.S. provided military and economic aid to SK, → long-term alliance.

What is the Eisenhower doctrine?

(1957) Pledged U.S. military and economic aid to Middle Eastern countries resisting communist aggression or influence

What is the Suez Crisis?

Britain, France, and Israel invaded Egypt after President Nasser nationalized (took over company in) the Suez Canal, leading to international backlash and pressure (esp from the U.S. + USSR) for their withdrawal.

What are some institutions Kennedy implemented?

• Expanded military spending + global prestige initiatives (e.g., Peace Corps, Alliance for Progress in Latin America).

  • Peace Corps: (1961) Volunteer program that sends Americans abroad to assist with education, health, + development projects in developing countries.

What is the Bay of Pigs Invasion?

• 1961 U.S.-backed operation in which Cuban exiles attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba.

• failed to overthrow Castro, strengthening Soviet-Cuban ties.

What was the Cuban Missile Crisis?

• Brought the U.S. + USSR to the brink of nuclear war

• US had missiles in turkey and USSR had missiles in Cuba

• Soviets withdrew from Cuba + a secret U.S. promise to remove missiles from Turkey.

  • Secret to save face (make US not appear weak)

What was US’ roles in Vietnam war?

• U.S. backed South Vietnam against communist North; involvement escalated under Kennedy + Johnson.

What was the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?

• (1964) allowed Johnson to expand U.S. military action without a formal war declaration.

• Reports that North Vietnamese forces had attacked U.S. naval vessels, gave Pres. Johnson the authority to use “all necessary measures” to repel armed attacks and prevent further aggression

How did Reagan aim to reduce US involvement in Vietnam?

• Vietnamization: Gradually withdraw U.S. troops from Vietnam

• South Vietnam collapsed after U.S. withdrawal in 1975.

How did the Vietnam war affect future millitary interventions?

It made future military interventions politically risky.

How did Nixon attempt to dissolve Cold War tensions?

• Nixon pursued détente with the USSR and China, reducing tensions through arms control and diplomacy.

  • Détente: period of eased Cold War tensions between the U.S. + USSR

What was Carter’s leadership focus during his presidency?

• Carter focused on human rights and peace

• Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel (1978).

  • Peace agreement btween Egypt + Israel

  • Egypt first Arab country to recognize Israel + Israel agreed to withdraw from Sinai Peninsula

What was the Carter Doctrine and what promoted it?

Promised US defense of its interests in the Persian Gulf.

• tIranian Revolution (1979)

  • New Iranian government was hostile towards US —disrupted US access to oil.

• Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

  • Soviet’s invaded Afghanistan and US feared they would lose all access to Persian Gulf.

What was Reagan’s initial stance and strategy towards the USSR?

• Reagan initially escalated tensions, calling the USSR an “Evil Empire” + massively increasing defense spending.

• He supported anti-communist movements—even illegally, as in the Iran-Contra Scandal.

  • Iran-Contra: Senior U.S. officials secretly sold arms to Iran despite an embargo

  • Used the proceeds to fund Contra rebels fighting the Nicaraguan government, violating U.S. law.

How did Reagan’s attitude towards the USSR change?

Reagan developed a strong diplomatic relationship with Gorbachev, supporting arms reduction + encouraging reforms that helped end the Cold War.

What was a post-cold war challenge the US faced?

The U.S. emerged as the sole superpower, but w/o a clear strategy to replace Cold War containment.

What was a large military success for Bush that also demonstrated his strategy?

• George H. W. Bush led a multilateral coalition in the Gulf War (1991) to repel Iraq from Kuwait (rare clear military success).

  • Gulf War: U.S.-led coalition military operation to expel Iraqi forces from Kuwait after Iraq’s invasion (liberation of Kuwait).

What was Clinton’s strategy?

• Clinton favored peacekeeping but was cautious after failures (e.g., Somalia, inaction in Rwanda). He intervened in Bosnia (1994) and Kosovo (1999) to stop ethnic cleansing.

How did Bush’s strategy change after 9/11?

• Bush rejected multilateralism + adopted a preemptive war strategy.

  • Multilateralism: Multiple countries work together on common issues or goals, often through international organizations or agreements.

What measures did Bush take after 9/11?

• The U.S. invaded Afghanistan (2001) to dismantle al-Qaeda and later Iraq (2003) to remove Saddam Hussein, though no Weapons of Mass Destruction were found.

• These wars led to prolonged instability + redefined U.S. foreign policy around counterterrorism and nation-building.