gramatyka pojęcia

verbal repertoire

linguistic varieties found in a speech community

register

varieties based on occupation or topic, eg. technical, medical

style

varieties based on formality of situation, eg. formal,informal, colloquial

reciprocal/ symmetrical usage

use of the same forms or structures

non-reciprocal/ asymmetrical usage

use of forms associated with different levels of style

topicalisation

movement of a constituent to the sentence-initial position for emphasis

agreement

type of dependence with matching of features

government

dependence without matching of features: a word governs another word

word

a meaningful unit that is distinct, internally stable and mobile, and is a building-block of larger units

lexeme

a word denoting a distinct concept

lexical unit

a single sense of a lexeme

a word form

a grammatically conditioned variant of a lexeme

polysemous words

with collocationally restricted meanings

idioms

multi-word items whose meaning is not predictable from the constituent forms (kick the bucket)

proverbs

sentence-long sayings motivated metaphorically (It’s no use crying over split milk)

denotation

relationship between a word and the reality to which it refers, independent of the context and situation

equivalence

semantic (denotational and connotational) similarity between lexical items in different languages

polysemes

related senses of the same word, eg. zamek-lock-zip

homonyms

unrelated words that have the same pronunciation or spelling but different meanings, eg. zamek-lock vs zamek-castle

homographs

are spelt in the same way but have different meanings

homophones

pronounced in the same way but differ in meaning or spelling or both, eg. bare vs bear

synonyms

different words that mean nearly the same

antonyms

mean the opposite

hyponym

a word whose meaning is included in that of a more general hypernym

meronyms

represent parts of concepts denoted by a holonym

metaphor

a word is applied to an object or action in order to imply a resemblance

metonymy

word that refers to an attribute is substituted for the thing that is meant (bottle=drinking alcohol)

synecdoche

a part is substituted for a whole or a whole for a part (America ‘the USA’)

language contact

the use of more than one language in the same place at the same time

language family

languages sharing the same origin - ancestor language

pidgeon

mixture of different languages, simplified

creole

when new generation takes up the created language - pidgeon evolves to

genetic

according to the historical development of languages (diachronic)

typological

according to the structural properties of languages, based on shared elements (synchronic)

diachronic

over time

synchronic

single point in time

language family

a group if languages that can be proven to have descended from a common ancestor (parent) language, eg. Indo-European

language isolate

a language with questionable classification, eg. due to the death of sister language, eg. in Basque

cognates

words having the same linguistic derivation, eg. mother-matka-Mutter

tertium comparationis

shared features with respect to which we compare forms in different languages

language typology

study of ‘typologically and universally shared features of languages

language universals

statements about properties common to most or all languages

synthesis

degree of morphological complexity

regressive/ anticipatory assimilation

influence of a following sound, eg. ten boys /n/ > /m/

progressive assimilation

influence of a preceding sound, eg. beds /s/ > /z/

coalescent/ fusion

mutual influence of sounds, eg. won’t you /wəʊtʃʊ/

morpheme

the smallest meaningful unit of a language, eg. dog-s

allomorphs

contextual realisations of a morpheme, eg. [z],[s],[əz] are realisations of -s

root

the simplest possible form of a lexical morpheme, eg. colourful, coloured, colourless

stem

a simple or complex form to which an affix is added

derivational morpheme - BDM

added to word creates a new word, can change lexical category

inflectional morpheme - BIM

modifies stems to express grammatical meanings

free morpheme

a morpheme which can stand alone

bound morpheme

a morpheme which must attach to a stem

cranberry morphemes

a type of morpheme - bound roots with a very restricted distribution

lexical morpheme

morpheme which carry lexical information, eg. amuse-ment-s

grammatical morpheme

morpheme which have a grammatical function, eg. amuse-ment-s

clitics

attach to a word/phrase/clause to form a single prosodic unit, eg. I’m; Sarah’s house

compounding

combining already existing roots, eg. blackbird

stump compounds

compound which are formed from initial syllables of words, eg. Pan Am (Pan American World Airways)

blends

are combinations of two stems with one or both stems reproduced partially, eg. brunch (breakfast + lunch)

reduplication

mish-mash (partial), Is he a friend friend or are they going out? (complete)

Suppletion

presence of different roots within the inflectional paradigm of a lexeme, e.g. be : am : was : been

Conversion

change of the word class without addition of an affix, with or without stress change, e.g. bottle (n.) vs. bottle (v.), per'mit (v.) vs. 'permit (n.)

Acronyms

formed from initial sounds, letters or strings of words, e.g. NATO.

Abbreviations

formed as acronyms but are not pronounced as words, e.g. MBA.

Clipping

involves the shortening of a polysyllabic word, e.g. advertisement > ad, advert

Back-formation

is similar to clipping but results in a form with a different meaning and lexical category, e.g. edit (from editor)

sex

a biological attribute of individuals (natural gender)

gender

social construct, with no direct mapping onto biological sex

epicene nouns

denote both males and females but take only one set of agreement forms (mysz)

common gender nouns

denote both males and females and take both agreement forms (ten/ta sędzia)

hybrid nouns

allow alternative forms depending on the type of target (Madchen —> neuter (grammatic agreement) vs. female (semantic agreement)

gender resolution

choice of an agreement form with a conjoined NP as the controller

semantic blocking

lack of a lexeme derived through a (productive) process to the presence of another form

feminisation

more frequent use of existinf feminine forms and introduction of new ones

neutralisation

gender-specific forms are replaced with neutral/indefinite ones

Locution

what is said (I’ve got an exam tomorrow ...)

Illocution

the meaning intended by the speaker (offer of help in preparation)

Perlocution

the effect of the utterance on the interlocutor (staying at home this night)

Representatives

commit the speaker to the truth of a proposition (affirm, believe, deny).

Commissives

commit the speaker to a course of action (guarantee, promise, swear).

Expressives

express an attitude (apologize, congratulate)

Directives

commit the hearer to act according to a proposition (ask, command, request)

Declaratives

alter the condition of a person/object/situation (fire, pronounce, baptize)

Language family

languages sharing the same origin - ancestor language

etymon

the proto-form of the word

Constatives

communicate information and can be evaluated in terms of their truth value, e.g. The Earth is round.

Performatives

are equivalent to actions, e.g. I promise I’ll never do it again.

Locution

i.e. the utterance - exactly what was said

Illocutionary act/force

, i.e. the meaning intended by the speaker - intention

Perlocutionary act/force

i.e. the effect of an utterance on the interlocutor

Representatives

commit the speaker to the truth of a proposition (affirm, believe, deny).

Commissives

commit the speaker to a course of action (guarantee, promise, swear).

Expressives

express an attitude (apologise, congratulate).

Directives

commit the hearer to act according to a proposition (ask, command, request).

Declaratives

alter the condition of a person/object/situation (fire, pronounce, baptise).

Felicity conditions

Conditions that must be met for performatives to be successful

Negative face

involves “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction – i.e., to freedom of action and freedom from imposition”

Positive face

e involves “the positive consistent selfimage or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)”