French Revolution ID Terms

Old Regime

L'Ancien Regime - pre-revolutionary society. It supported the system of government in France and much of Europe. This "regime" was still dominated by the aristocracy and retained many elements of the feudal system.

First, Second, and Third Estates

Social divisions within L'Ancien Regime. First - Clergy; Second - aristocracy; Third - merchant class, professionals, manufacturers, urban workers and peasants (i.e. everyone who wasn't in First or Second Estate). A person's individual, legal rights and personal prestige depended on category to which one belonged.

Estates General

This was a body representing the three estates which could be called into session by the king. It had not met since Marie de Medici called it in 1614. It had first met in 1302 when Philip IV (the Fair) had called it during the struggle against Pope Boniface VIII.

Taille

Under the old regime, this direct property tax was an important source of income. The nobility were exempted from paying this.

Tithe

These were dues paid to the Gallicanized Catholic Church. Generally considered to be set at 10% of one's income.

Metayer

Peasant sharecroppers in France. They did not own land but were tenant farmers often on lands belonging to the aristocracy.

Hunting Rights

Dating back to feudal times, the nobility had the privilege of hunting on their own AND peasants' lands. Peasants generally did not have these rights and therefore were limited in their ability to provide for themselves - particularly in years of poor harvests.

Banalites

Under the Ancient Regime, these were fees collected by the nobility from villagers for the use of the village shop, mill and winepress over which the nobility generally held a monopoly.

Eminent Property Rights

Right to certain rents - annual - that went with property considered to be within the manorial area. The rights were transferred with the property even if it were sold or inherited. The rights stayed with the nobility.

Calonne

He saw the need for financial reform in France. He was the successor to Necker as finance minister to Louis XVI. He proposed, 1786, a general tax to replace the taille, a lightening of indirect taxes, the abolition of internal tariff barriers, confiscation of church properties, and establishment of provincial assemblies in which propertied elements should be represented without regard to estate.

Lomenie de Brienne

This Archbishop of Toulouse succeeded Calonne as Finance Minister just prior to the outbreak of the revolution. By 1788 he was forced to advise Louis XVI to call the Estates General in an attempt to solve the financial crisis.

What is the Third Estate?

Written in January of 1789 before the meeting of the estates general in May, this pamphlet by Abbe Sieyes raised the class question and asserted that the nobility was effectively a useless caste.

National Assembly

The Estates General met in May of 1789. The three estates were made to vote separately and the first and second would obviously outvote the third. However, some priests from the First Estate came and sat with the Third Estate. The Third estate declared itself to be a National Assembly on June 17, 1789 and when Louis had the meeting hall closed to them, they moved to the Tennis Court.

Oath of the Tennis Court

When this event took place in a particular location of Versailles in the summer of 1789 the National Assembly agreed to remain as a body until it had written a new constitution. Commemorated in a famous painting by Jacques Louis David.

Capture of the Bastille

Medieval prison/fortress and much hated symbol of the Old Regime in Paris. Poor harvests and shortage of bread plus fact that King seen as assembling troops outside of Paris led to urban unrest. This site was stormed by angry crowd of Parisians. A few prisoners released and some weapons taken. It was not intended to do so but resulted in saving of National Assembly at Versailles. King flustered by event and decided to accept the situation in Paris.

Storming of the Bastille

The capture of this location in Paris on July 14 of 1789 was symbolic more than strategic --it was a much hated symbol of the Old Regime and intimidated Louis XVI enough to stop his efforts of assemble troops for possible interference with the work of the National Assembly. Now this date is a national holiday.

La Grande Peur

After Bastille, the situation in rural France went from bad to worse. There was a "fear"/rumour that bands of "brigands" sponsored by the nobility/king were coming - led to panic in August. Angry/fearful peasants stormed country homes of the nobility/manorial symbols. There was a general agrarian insurrection as peasants destroyed manorial records and burned property of propertied nobility. In some instances members of the nobility or their staff were killed. Led to many leaving not just the countryside but also the country.

Night of August 4th

On this occasion/date, in the summer of 1789 the National Assembly took advantage of the absence of some of the more conservative members and abolished the last of the feudal obligations.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

It affirmed the principles of the new state: rule of law; equal individual citizenship, collective sovereignty of the people. "Men born and remain free and equal in rights" (LIBERTY, PROPERTY, SECURITY AND RESISTANCE TO OPPRESSION).

The Rights of Man

Written by Thomas Paine in 1791, this was a defense of the French Revolution and a response to the work of Edmund Burke. Had a powerful impact in English.

Olympe de Gouges

This Frenchwoman was a writer for the theater and one of several who argued for equality of rights for women. In 1791 she published The Rights of Women as a commentary on the omission of women from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

The Rights of Women

Published in 1791 (Olympe de Gouges) as commentary on omission from Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen. Applied those principles in that document specifically to women. Also advocated women's right to divorce, property, education, careers, etc.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Englishwoman and author of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman which was published in 1792 and emphasized the importance of the equality of education for women. One of the first feminists of the age.

Vindication of the Rights of Women

Published in 1792 (Mary Wallstonecraft) outlining Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen and adding woman's rights too. Emphasized importance of the equality of education for women. But revolutionaries in France still dominated by men and only a very few of these (e.g. Condorcet) were supportive of women's desires for equal rights.

Patriots

In the Assembly as it was preparing for the new government there were some who wanted "veto" power for the king. The "patriots" wanted only delaying veto for the king and a one chamber assembly because they distrusted both the king and the nobility. There thus resulted a conflict of ideas between the conservatives and the "patriots". This would then be interrupted by the "bread march."

Count of Artois

The leader of the emigres and younger of the brothers of Louis XVI. Some even supported him over LXVI - thinking Louis had turned revolutionary.

March on Versailles

Still a bread shortage - women of Les Halles and revolutionary militants plus some members of the Paris "National Guard" marched out to Versailles to get the "Baker, the Baker's Wife and Boy" - brought them back to Paris where they would be under the "eye" and "control" of the revolutionaries. National Assembly also moved into Paris and came under influence of more radical elements.

Jacobins/Society of Friends of the Constitution

This French revolutionary party formed in 1789 and came to be known as the most radical of the revolutionary groups and the controlling force during the Reign of Terror. Associated with Robespierre.

Constitution of 1791

Constitution prepared by National Assembly. Established a unicameral assembly which was the legislature. Weak executive branch.

Flight to Varennes

In June of 1791 Louis XVI and his family attempted to escape and join the emigres who were agitating outside France to overthrow the revolution. King left a written message repudiating the revolution. He was spotted and arrested at this location in northeastern France and returned to a hostile Paris which now distrusted him and he was forced to accept the constitutional monarchy.

Active and passive citizens

In the new constitution of 1791 there was a distinction made between these. Illiterate citizens had civil rights but no political rights. Active citizens chose electors - 1 for every 100 active citizens. These then chose deputies for the National Assembly as well as local officials.

Electors

Per constitution of 1791, these were voted for by "active" citizens. One for every 100 active citizens.

Assignats

This was the name of the paper currency issued by the Constituent (National) Assembly in 1789 and based on confiscated Church property.

Le Chapelier Laws

In 1791 the Assembly passed this law banning labor unions because of wave of strikes, and abolished guilds.

Girodins

For a while these provincial representatives (mostly from southwestern France--near Bordeaux) were a powerful faction among the radicals and stood out as the party of international revolution. They were led by individuals such as Condorcet and Roland. Unlike the leading Jacobins/Montagnards, they did not support the execution of the king. Charlotte Corday, assassin of the Jacobin Marat, was a supporter of this group.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Established by National Assembly in dealing with issue of Church. Clergy to be elected by the 50,000 electors. Protestants, Jews and agnostics could take part. Number of diocese reduced from 130 to 83 and were to be coterminous with the new departments. No papal approval of appointments was necessary. State was to pay salaries. Abuses such as pluralism were ended. Significance - many did not approve and became counterrevolutionaries. Created big division. Left the Catholic laity terrified and puzzled. Many of peasantry were still devoutly catholic and found this aspect of revolution difficult to accept.

Non-Juring/Refractory Clergy

This was the name given to clergy who would not accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy as issued by the National Assembly in 1790. Many became counterrevolutionaries. Many were executed/persecuted in the Reign of Terror.

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Written by Edmund Burke, the philosophical conservative, in England. Said each country should shape its government based on national circumstances and historical background and character. Advised against wholesale liberalization.

Emigres

French nobility escaping revolution - spreading terror abroad. Used aristocratic connections in Europe. Led by the Count of Artois.

Miranda

A Venezuelan who became general in the French revolutionary army. Through him the ideas of the French revolution were spread to Spanish America and soon thereafter many colonies sought independence.

William Pitt

Founder of the new Tory party. This British Prime Minister was reluctant to get involved in war with revolutionary France and resisted the war cries of conservatives such as Edmund Burke.

Leopold II

This brother and successor to Joseph II of Australia and resisted pleas of emigres and Marie Antoinette to intervene in France. Came up with the Pilnitz Declaration of August, 1791. with the king of Prussia (Frederick William II).

Pilnitz Declaration

By Leopold II and Fred William II. Leopold said the HRE would intervene in France if all the other leading European countries would do likewise. Leopold felt confident this would not come about since he knew William Pitt would not get England involved.

Girondins

These were moderate bourgeois Jacobins (mostly from SW France) who for a short while were the dominant faction within the Jacobin movement.They were the group that proposed an eventual international revolution.They included individuals such as Condorcet, Brissot and Roland and his wife.

Mme. Roland

Wife of a Girondist. Many of the meetings took place in her home. Even many foreigners visited there - including Thomas Paine, James Watt (son of inventor) and German Cloots.

Francis II

Of Austria - succeeded Leopold II. More inclined to give in to emigres. Resumed negotiations with Prussia. Had effect of pushing more in France towards the Girondists' perspective.

Brunswick Manifesto

Following the Pillnitz Declaration, this was issued by Prussia and Austria in July of 1792, stated that if harm were done to the French king or queen there would be severe retribution on Paris. However, it was a miscalculated move in their part since radical revolutionaries in France used it to panic the country into a wave of patriotic fervor and preparation for defense. It helped to trigger the Storming of the Tuilleries and the September Massacres that followed.

Marseillaise

Inspiring revolutionary song composed by Rouget de Lisle, a captain in the army engineers.Sung by provincial troops, from Marseilles, as they marched into Paris. Very nationalistic and opposed to tyranny. Later became the national anthem.

Storming of the Tuilieries

Working class of Paris with support from provincial troops stormed the palace, massacred the Swiss Guard and imprisoned the king and queen. Stimulated establishment of revolutionary commune which forced the calling of a Constitutional Convention to write a more democratic constitution than the one of 1791.

September Massacres

Preceding events led to mass hysteria in Paris. Paris mobs and military volunteers responding to panic of foreign invasion roamed streets of Paris persecuting anyone suspected of counterrevolutionary sympathies. Massacred some 1,100 people.

National Convention

Met Sept 20, 1792. Would sit for 3 years. Initially charged with responsibility of writing new constitution. Proclaimed the 1792 was Year One of the new French Republic. Declared that it would give assistance to all Europeans who wanted to recover their liberty - EXPORTING REVOLUTION - therefore even more of a threat to political status quo on continent.

Battle of Valmy

Disorganized French armies won a moral victory (not really much more than an artillery duel) vs. the Prussians. Blocked the Prussian march on Paris. French armies then went on to occupy the Austrian Netherlands, Savoy (king of Sardinia had joined Austrians) and Mainz.

The Mountain

In the National Convention these members (sitting in the highest seats) were representatives of the city of Paris and challenged the leadership of the Girondins (representatives of the great provincial cities). They became the extremist political faction within the Jacobins. They developed the idea of the expediency of a revolutionary war - would force the revolution to gel in defence of its goals and the country. They led the Terror - under Robespierre's direction. Both would end with fall of Robespierre.

Sans-Culottes

Without breeches.This was name given to Parisian militants to signify that they were manual laborers. Political activists who were attempting to put pressure on the National Convention through the mobilization of local clubs and assemblies.

Dumouriez

Heroic general of the French revolutionary army - victorious in Austrian Netherlands BUT, in April of 1793 he defected to Austria. Allied armies then drove French out of Belgium and again threatened to invade France. Counterrevolutionaries rejoiced. Revolutionaries shouted - "We are betrayed!"

Revolt of the Vendee

In western France, peasants revolted against military conscription. Encouraged by nonjuring priests, British agents and royal emissaries of Count of Artois.

Federalist Rebellions

Wanted a DEcentralized republic. Rebellions became counterrevolutionary. Assistance from outside France. Also in great provincial cities like Lyons, Bordeauz, Marseilles - many rebelled against the Convention in Paris - especially after the fugitive Girondins reached them. Like the Vendeeans, they objected to the ascendancy of Paris.

Enrages

More extreme than the sans-culottes. They were leftist, extremists in Paris and the provinces who declared that parliamentary methods were useless. Formed revolutionary armies scouring countryside for food, denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.

Max Robespierre

The Jacobin leader of Convention and the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror was a controversial figure who might be viewed as a bloodthirsty, fanatical dictator and demagogue OR as an idealist, visionary, and ardent patriot. Had argued for universal suffrage and against capital punishment. Pro democracy and against the war. Determined to bring about a democratic republic of good citizens and honest men. He was referred to as the "Incorruptible"--but ultimately met his fate with the nation's razor in 1794.

Committee of General Security

Convention granted wide powers to group of 12 members from the Convention who were re-elected every month. Robespierre was an influential member on this committee. Also, St. Just, Couthon and Carnot. These men helped set up the Reign of Terror.

Reign of Terror

To repress counterrevolutionary activity, the Convention set up Co. of Public Safety which established this reign. Revolutionary courts were set up as an alternative to lynch law of September Massacres. However, due process was hardly observed in these and many went to the guillotine in Paris and in the provinces.

Levee en masse

In order to raise troops for war, the Committee of Public Safety proclaimed this recruitment order to rally all able-bodied men. It even recruited scientists (LaGrange and LaMarck) to work of armament technology. It was like a draft or national service.

General Maximum

Ceiling for prices and wages, set by the Co. of P.S. during the Terror to help check inflation during the crisis. Didn't work too well. Co. believed in free market economy and lacked technical and administrative machinery to enforce controls.

Constitution of 1793

The Committee produced a Republican Constitution in 1793 and had it adopted by the Convention. It provided for universal male suffrage but was suspended indefinitely because of state of emergency and Committee continued to govern outside of the constitution.

Ventose Laws

The laws moved to confiscate the property of suspects (not merely of Church or convicted emigres) and give such property to "indigent patriots". Not effective, but it did free slaves in the colonies.

Herbertists

Led by the ultra revolutionary, Jacques Herbert. Became party of extreme terror. Began indiscriminately denouncing bourgeois merchants - many quite innocent. Responsible for mass drownings at Nantes.They launched movement of dechristianization. Eventually the Committee shut them down.

Dechristianization

Movement started by the Herbertists. Included a new Revolutionary Calendar. Introduced "Cult of Reason" (1793) and climaxed with ceremony in Notre Dame with "Reason" being impersonated by an actress.

Revolutionary Calendar

Committee got rid of cycle of Christian holidays and seven day week cycle. Went to 10 day decadi. Months of the year were renamed - e.g. Thermidor, Brumaire.

Worship of the Supreme Being

Robespierre introduced this in 1794. It was a deistic natural religion. The Republic recognized the existence of God and immortality of the soul. Wanted to reconcile Catholics and agnostics on this ground. But Catholics beyond reconciliation and freethinkers, in tradition of Voltaire, saw Robespierre as a reactionary, mystery monger and were instrumental in his downfall.

Thermidorean Reaction

Reaction to end of Terror. Because of the success of the French army (now 800,000 strong) many in France no longer willing to put up with Terror atmosphere - no longer a national emergency. Working Class radicals no longer supported Robespierre.His elimination of Danton caused Convention to distrust him. The Convention executed Robespierre in Thermidor (July).The Thermidorean reaction lasted for several months thereafter.The Terror subsided, Jacobin clubs were closed and the powers of the Committee were reduced.

Insurrection of Prairial

As price controls were removed in the Thermidorean Reaction there followed a period of inflation. Working class suffered most from this. Led to sporadic uprisings. Mob attacked Convention. Troops called in to disperse. Army prevailed. 10,000 arrested, imprisoned or deported. Foretaste of modern social revolution.

Constitution of the Year III (1795)

After the Thermidorean Reaction, members of the Convention wrote a new constitution. Set up a Directory and a Bicameral legislature.

Directory

This was the name given to the 5-man executive branch of government established by the Constitution of the Year III and which led the government in France from 1795 to 1799. Narrow social base. Depended on military conquest. Chaotic provincial administration.

Louis XVIII

Count of Provence (LXVI's brother-older than Count of Artois). He had installed himself in Verona, Italy. Headed a propaganda agency financed by the Brits. But worst obstacle to royalism was himself. For example, he issued the Declaration of Verona.

Declaration of Verona

By Louis XVIII - announced his intention to restore L'Ancien Regime and punish all the revolutionaries. Obviously he had "learned nothing and forgotten nothing".

Gracchus Babeuf

Led conspiracy of equals - left wing, extremist group that was pro Robespierre. Opposed the Directory. Wanted to abolish private property and have equality but under a dictatorship. Interesting precursor to Communism. Repressed by the Directory and Babeuf guillotined.

Augereau

One of Napoleon's generals sent to Paris to help Directory in Coup D'Etat of Fructidor - wanting to avert a peace involving return of Louis XVIII. Directory purged. Old Republicans kept in. SIGNALLED GROWING DEPENDENCE ON ARMY.

Treaty of Campo Formio

Treaty between Austria and France, Oct 17 1797. Incorporated Napoleon's ideas. Truce on continent. Austrian recognition of French annexation of Belgium, Lt bank of Rhine and Cisalpine Republic. In return Austria got Venice and Venetia. France got Ionians Islands.

Second Coalition

1 and 1/2 years after Campo Formio, Austria, Russia and GB in coalition against France. French defeated at Battle of the Nile.

Battle of the Nile/Aboukir Bay

August 1798. The British fleet (under Nelson) cut off the French in Egypt. Napoleon stranded. Napoleon left his army in Egypt and hastened back to Paris.

Sieyes

The same Abbe who had written "What is the Third Estate?" and had voted for death of LXVI was now a civilian leader in the Directory. Felt the need for "confidence from below, authority from above". Saw Napoleon as the ideal candidate for the job.

Coup d'Etat of Brumaire

Named for the foggy month of November, this coup brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power in France in 1799 as First Consul in the Consulate that would last from 1799 to 1804. The legislature was driven from its chambers and the Consulate was declared.

Plebiscite

AKA general referendum. In the weeks after Brumaire, this was held to determine if there was a popular mandate for the new Consulate (supposedly a three man consulate). Approved 3 million to 1,500.

Notables

Part of make-believe parliamentary institution set up under Consulate. Through universal male suffrage a list of notables was elected and from this list government could choose ministers. But in reality, power was with the First Consul - Napoleon.

Council of State

Prepared legislation for Napoleon. Main government agency in the new system.

Treaty of Luneville

Feb, 1801. Austrians signed this with France after been defeated by Nap at Marengo. Terms of Campo Formio confirmed . In 1802 a peace was also signed with the Brits.

Prefects

Officials who ruled over the regional departments. Under direct orders from Minister of Interior. Part of Napoleons administrative machinery which allowed him to centralize control of France.

Fouche

Appointed by Napoleon as Minister of Police. This former Herbertist during the revolution established a secret police institution for Napoleon to keep him informed.

Talleyrand

Minister of Foreign Affairs under Consulate. Been in U.S. and Brit during the Reign of Terror. Pro Constitutional Monarchy. He was a political survivor, who even survived Napoleon.

Concordat of 1801

By this important agreement between Napoleon and the Vatican, a peace/compromise was established in 1801. The pope could depose bishops in the French Catholic Church, and Catholic ceremonies were once again permitted in return for Rome recognizing the French Revolutionary republic. However, confiscated Roman Catholic Church lands would not be restored and other faith traditions were permitted in France.

Careers Open to Talent

Policy under Napoleon. Was what the bourgeoisie had wanted before the revolution. In effect he sought to establish a meritocracy. However, this did not prevent him from appointing members of his family to very important posts.

Bank of France

One of old banks of Old Regime was revived by the Consulate and established as the national B of F to help in government financing and to assure a sound currency and s system of public credit.

Legion of Honor

In 1802 Napolean founded this to honor soldiers and civilians who had made contributions to France.

Napoleonic Code

Perhaps Napolean's most lasting achievement. Been made Consul for Life by plebiscite in 1802 and then set about codifying the French legal system. Issued in 1804 is was composed of five codes: Civil Code, Code of Civil Procedure, Code of Criminal Procedure, Commercial Code and Penal Code. Significance - made France judicially and legally uniform. Backed many aspects of Declaration of Rights of Man - Established legal equality and new law of property. Did continue ban on unions - workers rights not equal to employers and could not testify against them. Established civil marriage and divorce. However,after unrest of revolution code sought to strengthen traditional family ties so wife had very restricted powers of property and father held authority over the children. THIS CODE DID A LOT TO SET THE FUTURE CHARACTER OF FRANCE: REINFORCED IT BEING SOCIALLY BOURGEOIS; LEGALLY EQUALITARIAN; AND ADMINISTRATIVELY BUREAUCRATIC.