Chapter 2: Probing the Past - Archaeological and Paleoanthropological Methods

Flashcards covering key concepts, methods, and visual diagrams from Chapter 2: Probing the Past, including site formation, survey techniques, analysis of artifacts and ecofacts, skeletal analysis, absolute/relative dating methods, and archaeological ethics.

What approach, characterized by Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman, do archaeologists and paleoanthropologists rely on when independent streams of data point to the same conclusion?

A convergence of evidence.

How does the textbook define a paradigm in scientific disciplines?

An overarching perspective, broad view, or conceptual framework that underlies a scientific discipline.

What is the definition of a hypothesis according to the text?

A proposed explanation for some phenomenon, which may be derived initially from empirical observation.

What is an archaeological or paleoanthropological site?

A place where people lived and/or worked and where physical evidence of their existence (artifacts, ecofacts, and features) can be or has been recovered.

What distinguishes an artifact from an ecofact?

An artifact is any portable object manufactured by a human being or human ancestor, whereas an ecofact is a natural element found in archaeological contexts that exhibits human activity but was not made by people.

What is taphonomy?

The study of how materials become part of the paleontological or archaeological record.

What is the difference between primary refuse and secondary refuse?

Primary refuse consists of artifacts and ecofacts left directly at the place where they were used or produced, while secondary refuse consists of materials removed by people to a designated disposal area.

What are the primary geological materials and phenomena associated with the destruction of Pompeii during the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 C.E.?

Ejecta, pumice, and pyroclastic surges.

What archaeological feature or technique is demonstrated in this image from Pompeii?

Plaster casts formed by pouring plaster into cavities left in hardened volcanic ash by decomposed bodies of Vesuvius victims.

What is a pedestrian survey?

A systematic walkover of an area in search of archaeological remains.

What is a test pit?

A hole or boring dug into soil at regular intervals to search for buried archaeological evidence.

How is lidar defined, and why is it particularly effective in remote sensing?

Light detection and ranging, an imaging method that uses pulses of laser light to produce 3-D surface images capable of penetrating dense forest canopies.

In archaeology, what does the concept of association mean?

The spatial relationships among archaeological artifacts, ecofacts, and features found in proximity to one another.

What fundamental archaeological concept is illustrated by the different settings of the same spearpoint shown here?

Context; the spatial setting and associations of an artifact dictate its deduced use and cultural meaning.

What noninvasive subsurface technique involves sending an electrical current through the ground to measure varying resistance from buried features?

Electrical resistivity survey.

How does Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) function as a noninvasive archaeological tool?

It aims an electromagnetic pulse into the ground and analyzes the bounced-back signals to locate buried structures and features without excavating.

What remote sensing device was used by Jarrod Burks to reveal the invisible outlines of the Junction Mound Group shown in the bottom image?

A fluxgate gradiometer, which measures variations in the Earth's magnetic field.

What is trace element analysis, and what methods are commonly used to perform it?

Determining the geographic origin of raw materials by analyzing minute concentrations of elements using techniques such as Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) and X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF).

What did Phil Weigand and Garman Harbottle discover regarding Mesoamerican turquoise artifacts using Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)?

Many turquoise artifacts found in ancient Mexico were manufactured from raw materials originating in the American Southwest (Arizona and New Mexico).

What is experimental replication in artifact analysis?

The reproduction, under laboratory conditions, of facsimiles of archaeological artifacts to assess how items were manufactured and used.

What are wear patterns on stone tools, as studied by Lawrence Keeley?

Characteristic and diagnostic traces of microscopic damage, polish, striations, or scars left on tool edges as a result of their specific use on particular materials.

What is faunal analysis?

The identification and study of animal bones recovered at an archaeological site to reconstruct past human subsistence and hunting patterns.

What is an osteological comparative collection?

A collection of known, modern animal bones used as models to identify the species, sex, and anatomical parts of bones recovered during excavation.

What are coprolites, and why are they valuable to archaeologists?

Fossilized feces that contain undigested food remains, providing direct evidence for reconstructing ancient diets.

What is palynology, and how is it applied in archaeology?

The study of plant pollen grains, which have species-specific forms, enabling palynologists to reconstruct ancient plant communities and regional climate conditions based on the pollen rain.

How do C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways differ in their handling of carbon isotopes?

C3 plants (mostly trees) filter out the radioactive isotope $^{13}\text{C}$, whereas C4 plants (mostly grasses and sedges) readily incorporate $^{13}\text{C}$.

What are phytoliths?

Microscopic, nonorganic silica particles produced by plants that possess durable, species-specific forms useful for identifying ancient flora.

How do oxygen isotope ratios ($^{16}\text{O}:^{18}\text{O}$) in fossil foraminifera shells reflect Pleistocene climate change?

During cold periods, lighter $^{16}\text{O}$ evaporates and becomes trapped in glacial ice on land, leaving ocean water and foram shells enriched in heavier $^{18}\text{O}$ relative to $^{16}\text{O}$.

What is deciduous dentition, and how does it help age juvenile human skeletons?

Deciduous dentition refers to temporary 'baby teeth,' which erupt and shed in a fixed, predictable age sequence before being replaced by permanent teeth.

What is epiphyseal fusion?

The process during maturation where the caps (epiphyses) of long bones fuse to the main shaft (diaphysis) at specific age ranges.

Which skeletal indicators are used to estimate age at death in adult human remains?

The progressive fusion and obliteration of cranial sutures and the age-dependent morphological changes on the surface of the pubic symphysis.

How is strontium isotope analysis used to trace human geographic movement?

Strontium isotope ratios in tooth enamel freeze during childhood growth to reflect birthplace, whereas ratios in bone change slowly to reflect the location where an individual lived during their final decade.

What is paleopathology?

The study of ancient diseases, traumas, and nutritional deficiencies as evidenced in skeletal and mummified remains.

What is the half-life of radioactive potassium ($^{40}\text{K}$) used in Potassium/Argon (K/Ar) dating?

$1.25 \times 10^9\,\text{years}$ ($1.25\,\text{billion years}$).

What dating strategy is illustrated in this diagram showing hominin remains located between volcanic lava layers?

Bracketing fossil ages using stratigraphic position relative to volcanic layers dated via Potassium/Argon (K/Ar) dating.

What is the half-life of radiocarbon ($^{14}\text{C}$)?

$5,730\,\text{years}$.

What is Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating?

A high-precision form of radiocarbon dating that directly counts individual $^{14}\text{C}$ atoms in tiny samples.

Why are calibration curves necessary in radiocarbon dating?

To correct for historic fluctuations in atmospheric $^{14}\text{C}$ production so uncalibrated radiocarbon years can be converted to true calendar years.

What biological dating technique and sequence construction process is depicted in this diagram?

Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) and the construction of a regional master sequence.

What is the fundamental mechanism behind thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating?

Releasing energy trapped as radiation damage in crystalline materials via heat (TL) or laser light (OSL) to measure time elapsed since the material was last heated or exposed to sunlight.

What United States federal law establishes legal stewardship for Native American human remains and funerary objects?

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).