pe unit 3 aos 1 - how are movement skills improved?

classification of movement skills, qualitative movement analysis, biomechanics, coaching to enhance participation and performance

discrete motor skills

• have a clear beginning and end to the skill; a short distinct movement.

  • For example: kicking a ball, throwing a baseball pitch, shooting a free throw

serial motor skill

• a combination of several discrete skills performed in a sequence or specific order.

  • For example: triple jump, gymnastics floor routine

continuous motor skills

• have no clear beginning or end point; repetitive movements that are longer in duration

  • For example: running, cycling, walking

closed motor skill

• where the performer has the greatest control over the performance environment

• predictable

• internally paced

• low inter-trial variability

open motor skill

• performed where the performer has limited control over their environment and conditions are constantly changing;

• less predictable environment

• externally paced

• high inter-trial variability

qualitative movement analysis

A judgement of the QUALITY of the movement; the strengths and weaknesses of performance.

Why is qualitative movement analysis needed/purposes

Qualitative analysis is the systematic observation of the quality of human movement for the purpose of providing the most appropriate intervention to improve performance.

Qualitative movement can be analysed for many purposes, including:

• Diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses of players or teams

• To obtain a final result or rank in competition

• For talent identification or team selection

• To predict future performance results

four stages of qualitative movement analysis

1. preparation

2. observation

3. evaluation (diagnosis)

4. error correction

preparation

gather the relevant knowledge of the game and the characteristics of a skilled performance

Coaches need to determine:

• Purpose of the analysis

• Which player will be observed

• What the specific focus of the observation will be

• How the observation will be conducted

This involves the observer (e.g. coach) having a strategy for their observation. They need to decide if they will use technology and if the observation has a particular focus.

observation

• can occur by watching it live and/or by recording and measuring the performance.

• The purpose of this is to gather data and information of the actual skill performance.

limitation of observation

• The main limitation of observing the quality of a performance is subjectivity.

  • A coach/selector/spectator could watch the same performance and have different perceptions about the quality of performance.

  • Multiple observers may watch the same performance and have very different opinions on it

evaluation (diagnosis)

• refers to the judgement of quality and analysis of the movement.

• Coaches must decide first what the error is, what is causing the error, and how can it be addressed.

• Coaches can analyse a small number of critical features such as body position, joint range of motion, and sequence of body segments to determine any strengths and weaknesses

  • during this stage, checklists and rating scales can be used to try increase objectivity

  • validity, reliability, inter-trial reliability, intra-rater reliability

• use information gathered to provide feedback to the player to improve their performance.

• Coaches can provide visual/verbal feedback, modify their training, include skill drills to ensure error correction is addressed.

  • e.g. during a half time of a football match, a coach can address his team he is trying to fix potential issues that he observed using qualitative movement analysis.

benefits of understanding biomechanics for athletes, coaches etc.

• Optimisation of skill performance and proficiency

• The design and development of improved equipment and materials to maximise sports performance

• The transference of skills from the practice field to the playing field

• Prevention and reduction of injuries

motion

refers to a body’s change in position in relation to time.

linear motion

motion that occurs either in a straight line or curved path

angular motion

motion that takes place when a body moves along a circular path

force

pushes or pulls that change an object’s movement

resistance

mass

the quantity of matter found within a particular body, typically measured in kilograms (kg).

weight

the force acting on an object due rto gravity, and is measured in newtons (N) wegith = mass x gravity

inertia (+concepts)

• the resistance of a body to change its state of motion

• Closely linked with mass – the heavier the mass of an object, the greater its inertia

  • The harder it is to move

  • The harder it is to slow down/stop when it is moving

angular distance

sum of all the angular changes

angular displacement

difference between the initial and final angular position

speed

the rate of motion as determined by distance covered divided by the time taken

velocity

the rate of motion as determined by displacement divided by the time taken

acceleration

ANY change in velocity over a period of time.

units - m/s2

momenutum

• the amount of motion that a moving object has

• momentum = mass x velocity, this is often written as p = mv

• momentum is measured in kg m/s

conservation of momentum

Conservation of momentum describes how the total momentum of the two objects before a collision is equal to the total momentum of the two objects after the collision.

moment of inertia

Measure of an object’s resistance to change its rate of rotation

summation (to achieve best results, individuals must…)

the adding of different body parts to accumulate a greater overall force via the contribution of all these parts

To achieve the best results, the individual must:

• Use as many body parts as possible

• Use larger muscles first before smaller muscles (correct sequence of body parts.

• Combine movements of these body parts in a coordinated/ well-timed sequence of movements

• Have a stable base and use a follow through

impulse

a change in momentum

impluse = force x time

impulse is affected by

• the magnitude (size) size of the unbalanced force

• the length of time the force is applied

torque

causes an object to rotate

amount of rotation = amount of torque applied

torque = force x momentum arm

newtons first law

1. The Law of Inertia

• An object at rest will remain at rest until a force causes it to accelerate

• An object in motion will continue its motion unless a force causes it to slow down or change direction

newtons 2nd law

1. The Law of Acceleration

• When a force acts on an object, the acceleration that takes place depends on the applied, and the amount of force mass of the object

newtons 3rd law

1. The Law of Action & Reaction

• For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

• When an object exerts a force on a second object, the second object must also exert an equal-sized force back into the first object in the opposite direction

projectile motion

the motion that any object or body possesses when released into the air

forces acting upon projectile motion

• velocity

• mass

• shape

• surface area

• nature of the surface areafac

factors of projectile motion

1. Velocity/speed of release

2. Angle of release (launch angle)

3. Height of release

Velocity/speed of release

• The most important factor for achieving maximum distance of a projectile

• The greater the velocity of release, the greater the distance achieved.

angle of release

When attempting to achieve maximum distance in throwing and kicking skills, the optimal angle of release of a projectile is usually 45 degrees.

height of release

• the difference between the height that a projectile is released from and the height where it lands or stops.

• As a general rule, increasing the height of the projection results in a greater time in the air and distance travelled.

lever

A lever is a simple machine that amplifies a small force into a larger force – gives mechanical advantage.

parts of lever (explanation of each part)

• Axis/fulcrum is the turning or pivot point of the lever

• Resistance/load is the weight of the object being moved

• Force is the point where force is being applied

lever length impact

• The longer the lever the greater the force required to rotate (swing) the lever

• Longer levers have a greater range of motion

• Longer levers generate faster velocities (speed) of the object being hit, kicked or struck

• Longer levers are harder to control

static equilibrium

a motionless state, where the sum of all vertical forces, horizontal forces and torques acting on the body is zero

dynamic equilibrium

the state in which a body is in motion with a constant velocity (no change in speed or direction)

balance

the ability to maintain equilibrium; where control and coordination are essential components.

stability

refers to the degree to which a body resists changing its equilibrium, or the ability to resist movement and disruption to balance.

athletes can increase stability by

1. Increasing the size of their base of support

2. Ensuring the line of gravity falls within their base of support

3. Lowering their centre of gravity

4. Increasing their mass

5. Increasing the friction between the body and the surface or surfaces contacted

6. Extending their base of support in the direction of the oncoming force

7. Shifting the line of gravity towards the oncoming force.

athletes can reduce stability and balance to promote agility by:

• Raise an object’s COG

• Shifting the line of gravity outside the base of support

• Narrowing the base of support

• Decreasing the friction between two or more bodies

• Decreasing the mass of an object

cognitive stage

The learner is trying to understand the movement requirements of the motor skill and what needs to be done.

characteristics of cognitive stage

• The focus is on producing repeated movement routines and visually demonstrated by a professional.

• Movement and execution will be inconsistent, appear stiff and uncoordinated.

• Highly inconsistent performance; improvement is more rapid

• Learning takes place mostly through ‘trial and error’, they do not know how to correct the problem.

how to support learner in cognitive stage

• Provide no more than two simple instructions at a time to focus on

• Plenty of demonstrations (live & digital) to provide a mental picture of the task for the learner

• Complex skills can be broken down into smaller parts

• Focus on simple fundamental movement skills

• Include strategies to keep motivation high

• Provide positive and constructive feedback

associative stage

Where the performer begins to refine their technique/movement pattern as they move away from the ‘trial and error’ style of learning.

characteristics of associative stage

• Movement becomes more consistent with fewer errors made.

• Movement patterns are refined.

• The learner begins to develop some problem-solving strategies of their own.

• Rate of improvement is more gradual

• Focus starts to move away from the skill and more towards external stimuli (such as positioning of opposition, effects of spin on ball).

how to support learner in the associative stage

• Regular feedback to refine skills and reduce chance of poor habits developing

• Learners should be exposed to a more open environment where they learn to recognise important cues and develop their decision-making capabilities

• Coaches need to develop learners' ability to self correct the error

• Provide opportunities to practice with increased variability

autonomous stage

where the learner can perform the skill almost automatically, no longer needing to consciously think about the skill.

characteristics of autonomous stage

• Movement/skill is ‘ingrained’ and ‘second-nature’

• Able to multi-task or direct focus elsewhere (eg. calling out to teammate or calling plays)

• Can detect own errors and correct them with very small variance in performance

• Can focus on developing tactical and strategic awareness, and decision-making abilities

• Fewer errors with consistent performances

• Coordinated smooth flow movements

how to support learner in autonomous stage

• Practice using game-like situations to focus on tactics, shot selection

• Include psychological skills training to help the player cope under pressure

• Provide practice opportunities with high levels of variability

• Practice that challenge the athletes to use higher-order thinking via a range of problem-based learning scenarios

  • Eg. Having to return a serve down the line, from a left-hander using a kick serve

direct based approach

An instructor-oriented approach to coaching movement skills, where the learner is told what to do and how to do it.

characteristics of direct based approach

• The direct approach to coaching is a ‘skill and drill’, instructor-driven method that is particularly effective at skill development in the early stages of learning.

• Feedback is provided on every practice attempt. This limits the need for the learner to go searching for their own movement solutions.

• Learners are given explicit instructions – told what to do and when to do it

• Coaches makes all the decisions and have greatest control of the learning

• Skills are isolated from the game when teaching this

• Sports are broken down into technical skill components

direct based approach advantages

• The instructor-centred approach keeps learners ‘on task’

• Provides a predictable and closed environment to assist the beginner skill learner

• Effective and faster at facilitating early-stage skill learning

• Emphasis on ‘mastering’ technique

• Learner is provided with a set of rules to guide decision-making

constraints based approach

Encourages the learner to discover effective skill technique and develop tactical awareness through participation in short-sided modified games.

constraints based approach characteristics

• The constraints-based approach is a learner-driven method – learning is implicit (learning through doing)

• Develops both technical (skill execution) and tactical awareness (decision-making) through involvement in small-sided modified games.

• Learners are placed in a game context as early as it is practical to do so, to develop both technical and tactical awareness.

• There will still need to be some basic skill development process initially.

• But this can be engaging/motivating for learners

• Learners are encouraged to navigate the process of finding solutions to game-based challenges.

• Coach is the facilitator

constraints based approach advantages

• Practice closely resembles the game environment, so skills are more applicable

• Practice is more varied and interesting, so the learner is more engaged

• The learning is implicit, making the players better problem solvers and more use to high-pressure situations

• It encourages independent learning

• It develops both technical and tactical awareness

individual constrains

physical, psychological and behavioural characteristics of the individual performer

include such things as height, weight, fitness, motivation, confidence, decision-making skills and learning style

environmental constraints

• characteristics of the environment in which the performance takes place.

• This includes physical characteristics (e.g. climate, the playing surface and stadium lighting) as well as social factors (e.g. the influence of peers and cultural norms).

task constraints

• relate to the defining characteristics of the activity or sport.

• Task constraints include the goal of the sport (e.g. kicking the soccer ball into the goal), the rules of the sport (e.g. soccer players other than the goalie may not use their hands) and the equipment and facilities used in the sport (e.g. the dimensions of a soccer field and the size of the soccer ball).

part practice

• Breaking the skill down into smaller parts
• Effective for inexperienced/cognitive learners

• Eg – when learning a tennis serve, practice the ball toss/back swing/follow through separately

whole practice

• Practicing the whole skill
• Used when learner is proficient or when there is no benefit from breaking skills into parts

practice distribution

refers to the ratio of time spent actively practicing and time spent resting during a practice session. It can also refer to the frequency and length of sessions.

massed practice

• Continuous practice
• Little or no rest between repeat rehearsal of skill
• A training schedule with fewer but longer practice sessions

distributed practice

• More or equal time spent resting between practising skills
• Practice in shorter intervals, interspersed with recovery periods • A training schedule with more frequent but shorter sessions

massed practice advantages and disadvantages

• Maximises practice time • Suits practising non-fatiguing, discrete skills • Suits an elite, highly motivated performer

• Physically and mentally fatiguing • Repetitious and monotonous

whole practice advantages and disadvantages

• Greater learner engagement • Assists beginner or less motivated performer • Reduction of mental and physical fatigue during practice • Suitable when learning a complex skill • Recovery period allows for memory consolidation

• More time-consuming

practice variability

refers to the amount of change and variability within the practice in which the skills are performed.

blocked practice

• involves repetitively practicing the same skill under consistent conditions.
• Very little or no practice variability
• The learner’s attention is predominantly on executing and replicating ideal skill technique

random practice

• Multiple skills are practised in the same practice session
• Skills are practised in random order/ unpredictable
• More representative of the game environment
• The learner’s attention is predominantly taken up with decision making

feedback (purpose)

the information that a performer receives about the outcome of a task they have performed.

• Motivate the learner by indicating progress

• Highlight skill errors and enable the learner to make corrections

• Provide positive reinforcement to the confirm the learner is performing correctly

intrinsic feedback

When the performer uses their own (internal) senses to assess performance – visual, auditory, proprioception, touch.

augmented feedback (purpose)

refers to information that comes from sources external to the performer

1. Fixing errors

2. Motivation through feedback – “you’re doing well!”

3. Reinforcement through feedback –  “you got your ball toss right!”

knowledge of performance

refers to feedback that provides information about the process of performing the skill.

knowledge of results

information about the outcome of your skill performance

Psychological skills to enhance performance

• Confidence

• Motivation

• Optimal levels of arousal

• Concentration

confidence

the belief an athlete has about their ability to execute a specific task or goal successfully. When an athlete has self-confidence, they believe they can achieve their goal.

choking

when an athlete fails to perform effectively under pressure conditions.

mental imagery

involves athletes visualising themselves performing a skill or competition event flawlessly, without the actual physical movement

motivation

the reason for participating in an activity, learning the skills involved, training and practising, and dedicating effort to improvement.

intrinsic motivation

comes from within and occurs when factors such as enjoyment, satisfaction, improvement and enhanced feelings of self-worth are the primary motivation for performance

extrinsic motivation

has an external focus and usually involves some form of material benefit such as financial rewards, awards and trophies, glory and recognition.

arousal

the activation or readiness (physiological and psychological) an individual experiences when faced with a sporting situation or task

techniques to increase arousal levels

• Elevated breathing rate

  • Taking short sharp breaths can trigger the CNS into an increased state of awareness.

• Positive self talk

  • Athletes can repeat positive self-statements and affirmations or cue words to remind them of what they need to concentrate on to remain focused. This can also help increase their intensity and energy.

• Energising imager

  • Visualising something that is uplifting

• Acting energetic

  • pumping themselves up ‘C’mon!’

• Use of music

  • A common strategy used to control arousal levels with the ability to make an athlete feel inspired and motivated (can also be used as a calming strategy to decrease arousal levels).

• Pre-competition workout

  • Athletes can raise their arousal levels through the use of warm up exercises such as shadow boxing and motor skill challenges.

techniques to decrease arousal levels

• Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR)

  • A series of exercises based on the simple premise of tensing one muscle group at a time followed by a release of the tension. Over time, athletes learn the difference between tension and relaxation to help better manage their arousal levels.

• Meditation

  • Involves focusing the mind on a particular thing for a certain period of time to help reduce stress before an event by calming the mind and relaxing the body.

• Stress inoculation training (SIT)

  • Involves exposing athletes to increasing levels of stress, building up to those they would likely experience during competition. This develops an athlete’s ability to cope with heightened pressure, prepare for any stressors, control their responses and maintain their focus, and develop their immunity to stress.

• Controlled breathing

  • Lowering breathing rate to a controlled level to help reduce heart rate, blood pressure and arousal levels.

• Set routines

  • Having habits and set routines can help calm the body and mind as it is a familiar & predictable experience the body/mind is going through