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CR: what does glycolsis do
glucose to pyruvate, producing small of amount of ATP and NADH
CR: what does acetyl-coa prep for?
the krebs cycle
what does the krebs cycle produce?
more ATP, NADH, FADH2
how are NADH and FADH2 crucial?
both carry energy to the final stage of aerobic repsiration
what is the big payoff of the ETC
largest ATP production
what does the proton gradient do for ATP synthase
makes it produce a lot of ATP
what is the difference between photosynthesis and cR
photosynthesis:
light energy to chemical energy stored in glucose
In the chloroplast of the plant cells
use carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen.
CR:
chemical energy (glucose) to useable energy (ATP)
takes place in the mitochondria of the cell
uses glucose and oxygen to produce ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.
two forms of anaerobic respiration?
Lactic Fermentation and Alcoholic Fermentation
LacFerm happens when and what is caused because of it
happens during intense execrise and muscle soreness is caused because of it
what do pyruvates convert into during LacFerm
they convert to lactic acid
AlcFerm is used by?
yeast and some bacteria
pyruvate converts to what in AlcFerm produces what
ethanol and carbon dioxide. a small amount of ATP is produced
the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?
aerobic- oxygen is the final electron acceptor
anaerobic - other molecules like pyvurate acts as the final electron acceptor
what is not used anaerobic repsiration
ETC is not used meaning less ATP
what is used to amplify the signal transduction pathway?
kinases. they create a cascade a effect. one kinase can activate many others.
name of the actual division of diploid cells
cytokinesis
what happens when the checkpoints fail to do their jobs
uncontrolled cell growth and cancer
autocrine signaling?
the cell signals itself. signaling molecule releases and binds to the same cell. common in immune cells.
paracrine signaling?
signal acts locally and affects nearby cells by binding to their receptors. short-badge broadcast. neurotransmitiers releasign neurons to bind to other neurotrasnmitters.
endocrine signaling?
singal goes long distances. think of insulin flowing through the bloodstream from the pancreas to get rid of glucose
direct conteatc signaling?
involves gap junctions. channels connects the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. or cell to cell recongition.
different classes of membrane recpetors?
Ion channel linked receptors
G-protein linked receptors
enzyme linked receptors
Ion channel linked receptors?
ion channels that open or close in response to ligand binding. alters the flow of ions across the membrane which cahnges the mebrane potential.
G-protein linked receptors?
ligand binding activates a g protein. subunits interact to intiate a cascade
enzyme linked receptors?
ligand binding activates an enzyme triggering intracellular pathways.
explain in detail the G-protein linked receptor seqence
signal molecule binds to GPLR
the receptor interacts with the G protein (composed of other subunits)
subunits will detach from the G protein (usually the alpha subunit) and it interacts with other proteins like enzymes or ion channels
interactions can genreate second responders like cAMP to amplify the signal
could lead to various celllular responses.
what is feedback good for
maintaining homeostatis
negative feedback?
self-regulating mechanism where the response will reduce the initial stimulus. like a thermostat when it gets too hot, it truns off the heating. When it gets too cold, it turns on the heating.
positive feedback?
the response will amplify the initial stimulus. then a cascade effect which lead to signifcant change. childbrth is a good example. chemicals are sent to the brain to let the body know to continue to push the baby out.
what is less common: positive or negative feedback
positive feedback
explain G1 phase
the cell grows in size and produces organelles and proteins. preps for DNA replication. intense cellular activity
explain S phase
Dna replication occurs. chromosomes are duplicated and creates two identical chromatids that are joined at the centromere
explain g2 phase
cell continues to grow and produces proteins to prep for mitosis. checks for Dna damage and ensures that all components of cell division are present.
explain g1 checkpoint
if dna is damaged the cell will experience programmed cell death aka apoptosis. otherwise the cell goes on the s phase.
explain g2 checkpouint
apoptosis will occur if the DNa is damaged and cannot be repaired. mitosis will occur if dna has replicated properly.
explain m checkpoint
mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not lined up properly.
explain CDKs
CDKs are always present, but they’re only active when they’re bound to a cyclin
the CDK -cyclin complex phosphorlate various protiens triggering events in the cell cycle like dna replicaiton
explain cyclins
regulatory subunits of CDKs
cyclins activity can rise and fall during the cell cycle
without cyclins CDKs are inactive
what do cyclins do for phases G1, S, and G2
g1: promote entry into the cell cycle and progression through G1.
s: Activate CDKs that initiate DNA replication
m: Trigger the events of mitosis
what happens to cyclins after their duty is done
After they've performed their function, cyclins are targeted for degradation, ensuring that CDK activity is turned off. crucial for uncontrolled cell divison
Proto-oncogenes?
These are normal genes that regulate cell growth and division. the gas pedal of the cell cycle
oncogenes?
Oncogenes are essentially mutated or misregulated versions of proto-oncogenes that promote uncontrolled cell growth and division
tumor supressor genes
These genes normally inhibit cell growth and division, acting as "brakes" on the cell cycle. They also play a role in DNA repair.
what happens when tumor suppressor genes mutate and how many of them are needed to be considered inactive
When tumor suppressor genes are mutated or inactivated, allowing uncontrolled cell proliferation. both copies of the genes need to be inactive
what is the purpose of mitosis
the production of identical daughter cells and maintiang the proper number of chromsoomes from generation to generation
what is the law of segregation
allele pairs separate and reunite during random fertilization. that mean each gamete recieves only one allele for each gene.
law of independent assortment?
the inheritance of one gene does not interfere with the inheritance of another. genes assorting themseleves independently.
the law of dominance?
in a heterozygote (for example Pp) one allele with mask another (P will mask p) (P is dominant p is recessive)
will a monohybrid cross always have a 1:2:1 genotypic ratio
no the 1:2:1 genotypic ratio is hetero x hetero
what is the key difference with sex-linked traits
located on the sex chromosomes
why do x-linked traits show in males more
they have one x chromosome. males will express the phenotype of the allele whether its dominant or recessive
y linked traits
can only be passed from father to son since males only have the y chromosome.
common example of x linked trait
red green color blindness
explain incomplete dominance
no allele is completely dominant over the other. red and white alleles could make a pink allele for example
explain codominance
both alleles are fully expressed. neither allele masks the other
explain polygenic inheritance
multiple genes contributing to a single phenotype
explain non nuclear inheritance
traits that are not inherited from the nucleus. Could be inherited maternally form the mitochondria. Or the chloroplast maternally in plants.
environmental changes to phenotypes and genotypes
height and weight in humans
soil pH affects flower color
seasonal fur color in arctic animals
sex determination in animals
water is a what molecule
polar molecule
are the hydrogen atoms slightly positive or negative
positive
is the oxygen atom slight negative or positive
negaative
hydrogen bonds strong or weak
weak
cohesion and what it creates
water is sticking together and it creates surface tension
adhesion and crucial for what
water sticking to other polar substances and crucial for capillary action
water resists what
temperature changes
high heat of vaporation
turns water into vapor.
water is the what
universal solvent
water can dissolve
ionic and polar substances
what happens when water freezes and why does ice float in water.
the hydrogen bonds arrange the molecule into a less dense structure and ice floats on water because of its less dense structure.
pH scale
ph1 - acidic, pH 7- neutral, ph 14 - basic/alkaline
organic molecules are what based
carbon based
carbon has the ability to create
four covalent bond s
the four classes of organic molecules
carbohydrates, lipds, nucleic acids, and proteins
carbohydrate are what and they provide what
sugars and starches they provide energy and structural support
glucose is a what and made up of what
a carbohydrate and it s made of carbon, oxygens, and hydrogen
lipids are what and what are they important for
fats, ouls, and waxes and they providde energy storage, insulation, and forming cell membranes
what are lipids polarity are they soluable
They are generally nonpolar and insoluble in water
what are the work horses of the cell
protiens
what do proteins do
performing a vast array of functions, including enzymes, structural support, and transport.
what are proteins made up of
amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
what do nucleic acids do
store and transmit genetic info.
examples of nuccleic acids
dna and rna
what are nucleic acids made up of
They are made of nucleotides, each containing a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
molescules that do not contain acarbon molecules are what
inorganic molecules like salt NACL
Monosaccharides:
These are the simplest sugars, the building blocks of carbohydrates. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are examples.
to make a dissac or a polysacc what reaction is needed
de hydration syntheisis
Disaccharides
These are formed by joining two monosaccharides. Sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose are examples
Polysaccharides
These are long chains of monosaccharides. Starch (energy storage in plants), glycogen (energy storage in animals), and cellulose (structural component in plants) are examples.
to break a poly or a dissac what reaction is needed
a hydrolysis reaction which is water breaking the bond between the two monomers
starch
primary energy storage form in plants. It's made of glucose monomers and can be branched or unbranched
Glycogen
This is the primary energy storage form in animals. It's also made of glucose monomers but is highly branched. It's stored mainly in the liver and muscles.
Cellulose
This is a major structural component of plant cell walls. It's also made of glucose monomers, but the linkages are different from those in starch and glycogen, making it indigestible to humans.
Starch in plants:
Plants are generally stationary. They don't need quick bursts of energy like animals do. Starch, being less branched than glycogen, is broken down more slowly, providing a steady release of glucose. This suits the plant's slower metabolic rate.
Glycogen in animals
Animals, on the other hand, often need quick access to energy for activities like running or fighting. Glycogen's highly branched structure allows enzymes to access and break down glucose more rapidly, providing a faster release of energy when needed. Think of it like having multiple access points to a storage facility – you can retrieve things much faster.
Primary structure
The linear sequence of amino acids
Secondary structure:
Local folding patterns, such as alpha-helices and beta-sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary structure
The overall 3D shape of a polypeptide chain, stabilized by various interactions between amino acid side chains.
Quaternary structure
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in a protein complex. Not all proteins have quaternary structure.
rememeber that every amino acid has
an amino group a carboxyl group, a hydrogen , and a r group
r group
it give the proteins special chemical propetire s
