Section 1- Autocracy, Reform and Revolution

Localism

loyalty to the local area or community

How did Nicolas 1 refer to the Tsar as?

an autocratic and unlimited monarch; God himself ordains

How big was the Russian empire in the 19th cent?

21 million km2

The problem with governing an empire

lots of different ethnic groups, less than half the population were Russian in 1855, its very big, hard to rule a province thousands of km away

Over-Procurator

The highest official in the Orthodox Church

Holy Synod

A group of bishops which formed the ruling body of the church

Ukszy

Imperial edicts, the law of the land and official orders from the Tsar

Imperial Council of Chancellery

a body of 35-60 nobles chosen by the tsar to personally advice him

The Council of Ministers

a body of 8-14 ministers in charge of overseeing the different government departments

What was the imperial army mainly made up of?

1.5 million conscripted serfs, forced in 25 years of service

What was the state in the 19th centenary and what was restricted?

A police state, restrictions on free speech, freedom of press, international travel as well as censorship

When did Alex 2 become tsar?

1855

Why was Russia’s economy so backwards compared to England, France, Germany in 1855, with an 11:1 rural:urban population?

Much of the land was inhospitable, size and climate placed a strain and the serf-based economy

What were the weaknesses of a Serf-based economy?

Limited forces that drive change, no wage-earners, markets and entrepreneurs, little incentive to develop due to communal farming. Self-sufficient, so no purchases of food and money was not common/ had no value. No internal market demand or capital accumilation.

What type of payments/tax did serfs pay?

Private- 30% paid obrok (rent), 70% paid labour( barshchina)

State- taxes and rent

How was Russia divided Socially in 1855?

the non-productive land owning class and the productive serf majority, there were few urban artisans and a slowly growing small middle class

Intelligentsia

more educated members of Russian society, including philosophers/writers, many of who opposed the state due to many cultural, moral, political concerns

How did taxes c1855 work?

main direct poll tax paid by all but merchants, obrok paid by serfs, which hit very hard on the peasantry

Why did Russia loose the Crimean war in 1856?

suffered from outdated technology, poor transport and leadership. Army lacked flexibility and training. Inferior muskets- one between 2 soldiers- wooden based sailing ships

What was the impact of the Crimean war after 1856?

Revealed military failings, trade disruption, peasant uprisings a general ‘wake-up call’ for Russia

how many serfs were there in 1861?

51 million

What nickname was Alex 2 given?

tsar reformer

What were the motivations for Reform?

Alex’s views shaped by his tutor, Vasily Zhukovsky, his travels around the empire, political circle of progressive nobles, increase in peasant uprisings since 1840s and humiliation and failure of Crimea

Who were the group of nobles who helped Alex 2 lean to reform?

‘Party of St Petersburg Progress’, and his brother, aunt and enlightened bureaucrats

When was the emancipation edict?

February 1861, came into effect at Lent

What were Alex 2’s earliest reforms?

realising political prisoners, pardoning the Decemberists, relaxed censorship, lessoned restrictions on travel uni, cancelled tax debts and gave some more rights to Poland and Catholic Church

When did state owned Serfs gain freedom?

1866

Positives of emancipation edict

• freedom for serfs

• granted serfs an allotment of land

• landowners received government compensation

Negatives of the emancipation edict

• Serfs required to pay ‘Redemption Payments’ to the government over 49 years for their land

• Serfs required to stay within their mir until payments had been completed

• two-year temporary obligation period when allotments were figured out

• Landowners kept meadows, pasture, woodland, basically the best pieces of land although open fields were given to mirs

What were set up to replace to supervise mirs?

Volosts, which set up their own courts in 1863 replacing landowners jurisdictions

How many peasants were still temporarily obligated by 1881?

15%

Who did well from Land allocations?

Kulaks, who were wealthier and bought up extra land, some sold their land or got a passport and were able to find work in cities

What were some negative results of emancipation?

land allocations were rarely fair, small allotments were then divided between sons who ended up with smaller and smaller areas to farm, mir system was highly traditional and technical backwardness kept in place

How many of the peasantry were actually able of producing a surplus by 1878?

50%

What affects of emancipation made rural life difficult?

loss of benefits, travel restrictions, redemption payments and building resentment of the kulaks

How many incidents of peasant uprising/riots followed after emancipation?

647 riots in the first 4 months

Who resented their loss of influence due to emancipation?

Landowners

Who was largely responsible for drafting the emancipation edict?

Nikolai Milyuitin

What were some economic motives for emancipation?

Free pedants would be more motivated to work, meaning a grain surplus and an export in grain

More grain means more money, more chance to invest in industry and cause greater prosperity

How many people made up a Volost?

200-3000

When were the military reforms of Alex 2?

1874-1875

What were the motivations for the military reforms under Alex 2?

The failure of the Crimean war, to create a smaller, more professional, efficient and cheaper army

What were the military reforms 1874-75?

Conscription compulsory for all classes, length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years, less sever punishments, new command structure, modern weaponry, military colonies abandoned, military collages set up and literacy improvements.

What were the limitations of the 1874-75 military reforms?

upper classes found substitutes to serve for them, officer class still largely aristocratic, problems of supply and leadership continued

When were local government reforms under Alex 2?

1864-70

What were the Zemstva?

system of elected local councils to replace the former gentry at district and provisional levels

How were the Zemstva eleceted?

Through electoral colleges, with separate ones for nobles, townspeople, church and peasants, but the procedure was arranged in a way that meant nobles dominated

What powers did the Zemstva have?

They could improve public services, developed industrial projects, administer poor relief, which was extended to towns in 1870 with the dumas

What were the positives of the Zemstva?

An addition to local government, they composed of local men who understood the needs and a decree of representative government

What were the limitations of the Zemstva?

Never truly people’s assemblies, they had no control over taxes, state and local, and provisional governors still appointed officials who took responsibility over law and courts and were able to overturn zemstva decisions

When were Judiciary Reforms under Alex 2?

1864

Why were there Judiciary reforms in 1864?

Emancipation which had changed local justice formally in the hands of the gentry/judge and no jury or written witness/evidence, and to be model of the west

What were the judiciary reforms in 1864?

Equality before the law, accused presumed innocent, single system of courts, criminal cases heard before jury and barrister, judges still chosen by the tsar, local justices of the Peace elected, open courts and national trials

What were the positives of the new court system 1864?

More fair and less corrupt, public flocked to open courts, and a new opportunity for lawyers to speak and intelligentsia to criticise the regime. Some juries acquitted the guilty because they were sympathetic to them

What were the limitations of the new courts in 1864?

Political crimes were trailed by special procedures, trail my jury never established in Poland and the Caucasus. Separate courts for ecclesiastical and military stuff and peasanty in volost courts still treated differently

When were Alex 2’s education reforms?

1863-64

What was the reason for Education reforms in 1863?

Abolition of serfdom increased the need for higher literacy and numeracy- peasants running their own small holdings and businesses, the zemstva provided funding for education

What were the education reforms in 1863?

Universities could govern themselves, responsibility for schooling transferred to the zemstva not the church, primary and secondary extended. schools were open to all regardless of gender and class

How successful were education reforms in 1863?

provision grew massively, number of primary school rose from 8000 in 1856 to 23,000 in 1880 and number of students grew to over 1 million. They produced a new group of radical and militant thinkers.

What were the limitations of the education reforms in 1863?

They were so successful that they were restricted after 1866, the primary curriculum remained to strengthen religious and moral notions and basic knowledge and it still largely remained for the upper classes.

When were the censorship reforms under Alex 2?

1858

What were the censorship reforms?

relaxation of press, restrictions on publications, allowing foreign works and editorials on government policy

What were the effects of the 1858 censorship reforms?

number of books published grew to 10,961 in 1894, but the growth in critical writing caused a tightening of restrictions in 1870s

What were the other reforms under Alex ?

Some attempts to limit corruption in the church, but these were short lived due to peasant reactions

What were the overall changes made under Alex 2 to Russia?

Changing pattern of land ownership, helped industrial development, increase in social change and a growing professional class, the emancipation showed the governments willingness to change

When was Alex 2’s first assassination attempt and what was the effect?

1866, which shook his confidence and a more repressive policy was adopted as he was less inclined to ignore the conservative elite

What were the new appointments Alex 2 made in 1866?

He replaced ministers with conservatives, such as making Dmitry Tolstoy the Minister of Education

What were the changes in education in Alex 2’s later years?

Zemstva’s powers over education were reduced, church regained control over rural schools, only students from gimnazii schools were able to go to university from 1871, and there was strict control over student activities

What were the changes made to Police, Law and Order in Alex 2’s later life?

The police was tightened and the Third Section increased its persecution if ethnic and religious minorities, show trails were held to deter revolutionary activity and in 1878 political trials were transferred to secret courts

What was the Loris-Melikov constitution?

A report produced by Loris-Melikov in 1880 that recommended the inclusion of elected representatives of the nobility and of town governments in debating drafts of state decrees.

Who was Loris-Melikov?

Minister of Internal Affairs, released political prisoners, relaxed censorship and lift restrictions on the zemstvo

When was Alex 2 assassinated and who by?

13 March 1881 by the People’s Will