Demography

Birth rate

→ Live births per 1000 of the population per year

→ Long-term decline since 1900; **28.7** to **12.2** in 2014

→ **Baby booms** happened over time

* post war, 1960s

→ Increased since 2001

Future trends in birth rates

→ Increase since 2001 is attributed to **immigration**

→ 

Total fertility rate

→ Avg. number of children birthed during a woman’s fertile years (16-45)

→ Risen recently, but still lower in past

* 1964 was peak (2.95)
* 2001 was lowest (1.63)
* 2014 was 1.83

→ Women are having children **later**, or **not having them at all**

Why is there a decline in birth rate?

→ **Changes in womens position**

→ **Decline in infant mortality**

→ Children are **economic liabilities**

→ Society is **child-centred**

Harper -- BR/changes in position

Education is the **most important reason for the long-term fall in birth rates**

→ Change in mindset among women; dont have to be housewives

→ Many delay/dont have kids

→ No of 45yo childless women has doubled in 25 years

Harper -- BR/IMR

A fall in the IMR leads to a fall in the birth rate

→ Parents no longer have to ‘repalce’ dead babies, so fewer births overall

What is the infant mortality rate and why has it fallen?

No. of infants ==**dying before 1st birthday**==, per 1000 babies born alive yearly

Fallen in 20th century:

→ Better nutrition/services for mum/baby

→ Improved sanitation, reduced infectious disease

→ Knowledge of child welfare/health

→ Medical factors e.g. midwifery, antibiotics, vaccines

Children as economic liabilities

→ Can no longer work at an early age; children ==**used to be assets, but now are economically dependent for longer**==

→ Changing norms = kids are more expensive

→ Parents may not be able to afford a big family

Society as child-centred

Childhood is a more important period in our lives

→ Parents have fewer children, give more attention to those few

Effects of changes in fertility

→ Effects on the family

→ Dependency ratio

→ Vanishing children

→ Public services/policies

→ Aging population

Effects on the family -- fertility

Smaller families = women freer to go to work

→ Creates a ==**dual-earning couple**==

→ Better off couples may also be able to have bigger families + still use childcare services to work f/t

Effects on dependency ratio -- fertility

This is the **size of the working population vs non-working**

→ Children make up most of dependent population, so less kids = ==**reduction in burden of dependency**==

→ Long-term, will be a ==**smaller working population**== so burden rises again

Effect on vanishing children -- fertility

Fall in TFR = less kids

→ Childhood is lonelier

→ More childless adults, so fewer voices speaking in childrens’ interests

→ May make children more valued

Effect on public services/policies -- fertility

Less schools/maternity/child health services needed

→ Also lowers costs of maternity/paternity leave on the public

→ Changes types of houses needed (smaller, not bigger)

Effect on aging population -- fertility

Less kids = average age of population rises

Tranter -- death rate

Death rate has declined so heavily in 19th/20th century due to ==**fall in deaths from infectious diseases**==

→ Particularly TB

→ HOWEVER these have been ==**replaced by diseases of affluence**==

* Heart disease, cancer
* Affect the old, rather than the young

Reasons for decline in death from infection

→ Improved nutrition

→ Medical advancements

→ Reduction in smoking?

→ Public health measure

→ Other social changes

McKeown -- DR/nutrition

Nutritional accounts for half the reduction in deaths from infectious disease

→ Increased resistance for those infected

**→** But, ==**how come women live longer even though they tend to get smaller shares of the food supply?**==

Medical advancements -- DR

→ Antibiotics/immunisation

→ NHS gives care to people

→ Bypass surgeries + medication for heart disease

Reduction in smoking -- DR

→ May be counteracted by rise in obesity

* Deaths from this kept low due to **medication**
* Rise of ==**American health culture**== where lifestyles are unhealthy, but long lifespan is achieved via medication

Harper -- DR/smoking

Greatest fall in death comes from reduction in smoking

Public health measures -- DR

Help to improve quality of the environment

→ Clean Air Act

→ Improved housing quality

→ Pasteurised milk

Other social changes -- DR

→ Decline of **dangerous manual occupations** e.g. mining

→ Smaller families reduce transmission rates

→ Greater public knowledge of causes of infection

→ Lifestyle changes; reduction in smoking

→ Higher incomes; healthier, higher qual. lifestyle

Life expectancy

→ Increase of 2 years per decade for last 2 centuries

→ Previously very low due to IMR

Harper -- life expectancy

We will soon achieve ==**radical longevity**== if lif expectancy continues to increase

→ Predicted to be 1mil centarians by 2100

Class, gender and regional differences -- life expectancy

→ Women generally live longer than men

* Gap is narrowing due to lifestyle changes

→ Those in the North/Scotland have lower life expectancy than those in the South

→ W/c men in unskilled jobs 3x as likely to die before 65 as men in professional jobs

→ ^^**Walker**^^; those in poor areas of England die **7 years earlier** than those in the richest

Ageing population

→ Average age of population is rising

→ 2014; 65+ equal to u15s

→ Caused by rising life expectancy + decline in IMR/TFR

Effects of aging population

→ Public services

→ One-person households

→ Dependency ratios

Public services -- aging population

Elderly people consume **larger proportion of public services**

→ Possible changes in policy/provision of housing/transport/other services

→ BUT many remain in good health

One-person households -- ageing population

→ Lots of pensioners in this family type

→ ==**Feminisation of later life**==; most are women, as usually outlive their husbands

Dependency ratio -- ageing population

Retired elderly are **economically dependent** and provided for via taxation

→ Dependency ratio increases as people retired

→ Pension withdrawal age rising due to this

→ Increase in number of old people is offset by declining number of kids

* Will have long-term negative effect

Ageism -- ageing population

Negative stereotyping/treatment of people based on their age

→ Rising due to ageing pop. - especially due to cost of pensions/healthcare for the old

Modern soceity and old age

Say ageism comes from ==**structured dependency**==

→ Old people excluded from paid work, so dependent on family/state

→ Identity/status in modern society is based on your role in production, which old people are excluded from

→ Made powerless, as excluded from labour force, which is important in role allocation

Phillipson -- ageism

Old people are of no use to capitalism; no longer productive

→ State is unwilling to support them, so family must take on their care

Postmodern society and old age

→ Trends have ==**blurred boundaries between life stages**==

* Individuals have greater choice, regardless of age
* Early retirement, kids dressing like adults

→ Elderly can shape their identities via ==**rejuvenation services** ==e.g. Botox

* Can write their own identities as we focus on **surface features**

→ Breaks down ageist stereotypes

→ Centrality of the media means positive aspects of elderly life can be portrayed

Pilcher -- inequality among the old

Inequalities of class/gender are still important after stages of the life course are broken down

→ M/c have **better pensions/sa**vi**ngs** to live a better life/maintain self-identity

→ Women also suffer from this; lower pay, career breaks, + sexist stereotyping of them as ‘old hags’ vs men as ‘dilfs’

Evaluation of postmodern explanation of ageing

Understates the importance of inequality

Hirsch -- policy implications of ageing

Lots of important social policies must change to tackle issues caused by the ageing population

→ How do we finance longer periods of old age?; working for longer, or paying more taxes while working?

→ Housing policies so old people can trade down into smaller housing

* Frees up housing for young people

→ Need cultural changes in attitudes towards old age

Migration and demographics

Migration affects the **size/age of the population**

→ Immigration = movement into society

→ Emigration = movement out

→ Net migration = difference between im/em

* Until 1980s, more emigrants than immigrants

Immigration and demographics

→ Results in ethnically diverse society

→ Immigration acts in 60s-90s **restricted non-white immigration**

* White EU countries are main source of UK immigration

Emigration and demographics

→ UK used to be a **net exporter** of people (more em. than imm.)

* Mostly to US/CAN/AUS/NZ/SA

→ Usually economic factors caused this

* ==**Push factors**==; recession/unemployment at home
* ==**Pull factors**==; higher wages/opportunities abroad

→ Contracts with immigrant reasons - many people immigrated to UK due to ==**persecution**==

Impact of migration on population size

→ Increase due to immigration

→ Natural increase in births; non-UK mothers account for 25% of all births

* ==**still below replacement level**== of 2.1 per woman

→ If not for net migration, population would be shrinking

Impact of migration on age structure

→ Lowers avg. age of population directly + indirectly

* ==**Direct**==; immigrants usually younger
* ==**Indirect**==; young immigrants = more fertile, have kids

Impact of migration on dependency ratio

→ More likely to be of working age; lowers DR

* Many older migrants will return to home country to retire

→ Produce more children, so **increase ratio**

* Lowers long term as they join labour force

→ Overall impact of DR is reduced over time

What is globalisation?

→ Barriers between societies are disappearing

→ People are becoming increasingly interconnected across nations

→ Produces rapid social change; e.g. increased international migration

United Nations -- acceleration of migration

International migration is speeding up

→ Increased 33% 2000-2013

Differentiation -- globalisation

→ Different types of migrants; temp workers, spouses, forced migration

* Legal and illegal

→ Globalisation diversifies migrant types; ==**students are a major group**==

→ Pre-90s most came from former colonies who had a ==**right to settle**==

Vertovec -- differentiation

Globalisation leads to ==**superdiversity**==

→ Migrants come from more countries

→ More dispersed across UK

Cohen -- differentiation

3 types of migrants

→ ==**Citizens**== with full rights

→ ==**Denizen**==; privileged foreign nations e.g. oligarchs

→ ==**Helots**==; most exploited, found in unskilled work

Feminisation of migration

→ More migrants are female now

→ Fitted into **patriarchal stereotypes**; roles as carers/providers of sexual service

→ Gap of women in the services industry is filled by women from poor countries

Ehrenreich & Hochschild -- feminisation of migration

Care/domestic/sex work is increasingly done by women from poor countries because…

→ Western women/men unwilling to do domestic labour

* Western women joining labour force

Shutes -- feminisation of migration

40% of adult care nurses in UK are migrants, mostly female

Global transfer of womens emotional labour -- feminisation of migration

→ Nannies provide care to employers’ children

→ At expense of their own children from their home country

Mail order brides -- feminisation of migration

→ Women entering western countries to marry

→ Reflects gender/racial stereotypes

Migrant identities

→ Sources of identities come from many places

→ Country of origin often provides additional identity

→ ==**Hybrid identities**==; 2+ sources of ID

→ ==**Transnational identities**==; not belonging to just one place

Eade -- hybrid identities

Bangladeshi Muslims had ==**hierarchical hybrid identities**==

→ Muslim, then Bengali, then British

→ May find others ==**challenge their identity**==

Eriksen -- transnational identities

Globalisation has created ==**diverse migration patterns**==

**→** ==**Back-and-forth**== movements, rather than permanent settlement

→ Can sustain global ties without travel

Eriksen -- links to other migrants

People may have links to migrants globally, more than just their country of origin or settlement

→ Chinese migrants in Rome had connections with other Chinese worldwide

→ Makes immigrants ==**less likely to desire assimilation into host culture**==

Politicisation of migration

→ States have ==**immigration control policies**==

* Linked to anti-terrorism policies

→ ==**Assimilation** ==was first state policy approach

* Encouraging immigrants to adopt language/values of host culture
* Transnational migrants may not want to view themselves as belonging to just one nation

→ ==**Multiculturalism**==; accepts migrants want to retain a separate identity, but often limited to ==**superficial diversity**==

* Move to this since 60s, apprehensive to do so since 9/11

Evaluation of politicisation of migration

→ Assimilation policies could encourage workers to blame migrants for social issues eg unemployment

→ Multicultural ed policies only celebrate shallow diversity; fail to address deeper issues of racism

Castles -- assimilation

Assimilation policies are counterproductive

→ Mark out minorities as culturally ‘other’

Eriksen -- multiculturalism

Shallow diversity is acceptable to the state

→ e.g. chicken tikka masala as UK national dish

→ Ignore deep diversity e.g. arranged marriages and veiling