SOAN 100 Exam 1

Sociology

the study of human behavior in society

Social Interaction

behavior between two or more people that is given meaning

Social Structure

the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that together constitute society

Social Institutions

established and organized systems of social behavior with a particular and recognized purpose

examples: family, religion, marriage, government, economy

Social Change

the alteration of society over time

Sociological Imagination

idea by C. Wright Mills, defined as the ability to see societal patterns that influence individuals as well as groups and whole societies

example: people trying to “look good” may seem individualistic but is actually shaped by society

Troubles vs. Issues

troubles — privately felt problems that spring from events or feelings in a person’s life

issues — affect large numbers of people and have their origins in the institutional arrangements and history of a society

example: unemployment (individual circumstances vs. nationwide)

Individualism

ideal that values each person’s life and self-worth, core tenet of American democracy

can have a negative tendency of explaining social issues in individual contexts

example: school shootings (individualism focuses on the mental health of the shooter, but we should also focus on weapons and mental health support system)

Empirical

careful observation, not just conjecture or opinion

describes sociology as a rigorous field

Debunking

looking behind the facades of everyday life (looking at the behind-the-scenes patterns and processes that shape the behavior they observe in the social world)

example: school is not just a place for learning; it can reveal “insiders” vs. “outsiders,” race and class conflicts, etc. to teach students about expectations of society and their place within it

Critical Distance (in debunking)

critical distance is the ability to detach from the situation at hand and view things with a critical mind (explained by Georg Simmel)

debunking is sometimes easier to do when looking at a culture or society different from one’s own (provides an outsider’s POV)

“strangers” have a position both inside and outside social groups; they are part of a group without necessarily sharing the group’s assumptions

example: foot binding was very common in China and no one questioned it, yet foreigners immediately recognize the weirdness and social implications

Diversity

the variety of group experiences that result from the social structure of society

particularly important in the US because we are a “melting pot”

examples: race, class, gender, age, nationality, sexual orientation, region of residence, etc.

Functionalism

interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole

* individuals occupy fixed social roles

* inequality is inevitable and functional for society

* social order stems from consensus on public values

* society seeks equilibrium when there is social disorganization

* this is a conservative view of society that underplays power differences among and between groups

Conflict Theory

emphasizes the role of coercion and power in society and the ability of some to influence and control others

* individuals are subordinated to society

* inequality results from a struggle over scarce resources

* social order is maintained through power and coercion

* change comes through the mobilization of people struggling for resources

* the theory understates the degree of cohesion and stability in society

Symbolic Interaction Theory

emphasizes immediate social interaction as the place where “society” exists

* individuals and society are interdependent

* inequality is demonstrated through the importance of symbols

* social order is sustained through social interaction and adherence to social norms

* change develops from an ever-evolving set of social relationships and the creation of new meaning systems

* there is little analysis of inequality, and it overstates the subjective basis of society

Feminist Theory

considers gender as the primary lens through which to view society

* women and men are bound together in a system of gender relationships that shape identities and beliefs

* inequality stems from the matrix of domination that links gender, race, class, and sexuality

* patriarchal social orders are maintained by the power that men hold over women

* social change comes from the mobilization of women and their allies on behalf of women’s liberation

* feminist theory has too often been anchored in the experiences of White, middle-class women

Culture

the complex system of meaning and behavior that defines the way of life for a given group or society

includes beliefs, values, knowledge, music, art, morals, laws, customs, habits, language, dress, etc.

Material Culture

consists of the objects created in a given society (tangible objects)

examples: buildings, art, tools, toys, literature, etc.

Nonmaterial Culture

aspects of culture that are not tangible, rather represent broad ideas

examples: norms, laws, customs, ideals, and beliefs

Ethnocentrism

habit of seeing things only from the point of view of one’s own group

tends to combine group solidarity with the idea of group superiority (viewing other cultures as inferior)

Cultural Relativism

idea that something can be understood and judged only in relation to the cultural context in which it appears (opposite of ethnocentrism)

example: people in Tibet cut corpses into pieces for vultures to eat because the cold climate prevents them from digging the soil to do burials

Culture Shock

the feeling of disorientation when one encounters a new or rapidly changed cultural situation

can come in a variety of forms, including moving to a new country, after a major political/cultural shift, a new generation, etc.

Characteristics of Culture

1. Culture is shared. (culture is collectively experienced and collectively agreed upon)

2. Culture is learned. (through direct instruction or indirect observation and imitation, in a process called socialization)

3. Culture is taken for granted. (most actions seem “normal” in society because people get used to it and do not question it)

4. Culture is symbolic. (the significance of culture lies in the meaning it holds for people)

5. Culture varies across time and place. (different countries and different eras had vastly different cultures)

Symbols

things or behaviors to which people give meaning

example: US flag is a decorated piece of cloth yet is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and pride

Language

a set of symbols and rules that, put together in a meaningful way, provides a complex communication system

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

asserts that language determines other aspects of culture because language provides the categories through which social reality is defined

similarly, culture also obviously affects language

Language and Inequality

language can reproduce the inequalities that exist in society

examples: using words that are discriminatory (based on gender, race, social class, etc.) — if used within a group it is fine at times, but otherwise it is not

Norms

specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation

due to norms, people know how to act, and social interactions are consistent, predictable, and learnable

Implicit Norms

norms that are not spelled out — not necessarily formal rules, but violation of these norms may nonetheless produce a harsh response

can be learned through specific instruction or by observation of the culture

example: not cutting in line in the US

Explicit Norms

rules governing behavior that are written down or formally communicated (such as laws)

specific sanctions are imposed for violating explicit norms

Folkways

general standards of behavior adhered to by a group

ordinary customs, typically casual and describing everyday actions and life

Mores

strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior; often much more serious and controlled through laws

example: killing, committing adultery

Taboos

behaviors that bring the most serious sanctions

example: Islamic women who do not have their bodies cloaked and faces veiled (hijab)

Social Sanctions

mechanisms of social control that enforce folkways, norms, and mores

can be serious legal punishment (jail, death) or implicit social consequence (disapproval, admonishment)

Positive vs. Negative Sanctions

positive sanctions are rewards for correct behavior — reinforcement through praise, approval, or a physical reward

negative sections are punishments for incorrect behavior — consequences through admonishment, disapproval, or even jail/death

Ethnomethodology

theoretical approach in sociology based on the idea that you can discover the normal social order through disrupting it

ethnomethodologists often deliberately disrupt social norms to see how people respond, which reveals the ordinary social order

Beliefs

shared ideas held collectively by people within a given culture about what is true — binds people together

Values

abstract standards in a society or group that define ideal principles — define what is desirable and morally correct

Dominant Culture

culture of the most powerful group in society

commonly believed to be “the” culture of society — is often the standard

Subcultures

cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior differ to some degree from those of the dominant culture

on a continuum between similar and separated to the dominant culture

example: rap and hip-hop (cultural rebellion against dominant culture but also have become mainstream) vs. Amish and religious cults (try to stay away from dominant culture as much as possible)

Countercultures

subcultures created as a reaction against the values of the dominant culture

develop cultural practices that explicitly defy the norms and values of the dominant group)

examples: young culture going against old culture

Global Culture

diffusion of a single culture throughout the world

example: Coca-Cola, McDonalds, etc.

Mass Media

refers to the channels of communication that are available to wide segments of the population (news, TV, social media, etc.)

Popular Culture

refers to the beliefs, practices, and objects that are part of everyday traditions, such as music and video, mass-marketed books and magazines, newspapers, social media apps

Social Media

the term used to refer to the vast networks of social interaction that new media have inspired

Cultural Hegemony

defined as the pervasive and excessive influence of one culture throughout society

Reflection Hypothesis

mass media reflects the values of the general population

the opposite is true in some cases as well

Cultural Capital

the cultural resources that are deemed worthy (such as knowledge of elite culture) and that give advantages to groups possessing such capital

Culture Lag

society adjusts slowly to changing cultural conditions

or some aspects of culture adjust slowly

Cultural Diffusion

transmission of cultural elements from one society or cultural group to another

Sources of Cultural Change

1. Cultures change in response to changed conditions in society. (economic changes, political changes, population changes, social transformations — examples include immigration into the US)

2. Cultures change through cultural diffusion. (many countries have become Westernized, US is impacted by various immigrants)

3. Cultures change as the result of innovation, including inventions and technological developments. (technology such as transportation, internet, AI, etc. have changed society)

4. Cultural change can be imposed. (political revolutions, powerful group taking over, biased agents of socialization, etc.)