Chapter 2: Research Methodology

Goals of Science

Description, prediction, and explanation.

Scientific Method

A systematic procedure for conducting research.

Theory

An explanation or model of how a phenomenon works.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Falsifiability

The possibility of a theory being proven wrong.

Occam's Razor

The principle that simpler theories are preferred over complex ones.

Seven Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Pose a Question, 2. Literature Review, 3. Form Hypothesis, 4. Design Study, 5. Conduct Study, 6. Analyze Data, 7. Report Results.

Literature Review

Review of existing scientific literature related to the research question.

Operational Definition

Specific definitions that qualify and quantify variables for research.

Peer Review

Evaluation of research by other scientists to ensure quality.

Preprint Server

A platform for sharing research results before formal peer review.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm its results.

Small Samples

Limited sample sizes can lead to less accurate results.

HARKing

Hypothesizing after results are known, potentially biasing research.

Open Science Movement

Promotes transparency and ethical standards in research.

Preregistration

Documenting study hypotheses, methods, and analysis plans in advance.

Meta-analysis

Analyzing multiple studies to summarize findings on a specific issue.

Critical Thinking

Systematically evaluating information using evidence.

Descriptive Research

Observational methods used to describe behavior.

Case Study

An intensive observation of a single individual or organization.

Observational Studies

Research involving observing behavior in natural settings.

Self-Report Methods

Surveys and interviews used to gather data from participants.

Correlational Studies

Examine how variables relate without manipulating them.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where higher values in one variable predict higher values in another.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where higher values in one variable predict lower values in another.

Zero Correlation

No predictive relationship between two variables.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty regarding which variable causes the other.

Third Variable Problem

An unmeasured variable may be responsible for the observed relationship.

Experimental Method

Research method allowing maximum control to determine causation.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured in an experiment.

Confound

An uncontrolled variable that may affect the dependent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups randomly to ensure fairness.

Population

The larger group of people that researchers aim to understand.

Sample

A smaller subset of the population chosen for study.

Random Sampling

Method of selecting participants ensuring everyone has an equal chance.

Convenience Sample

Participants who are easily accessible, potentially introducing bias.

Ethics in Psychology

Guidelines ensuring respect, beneficence, and justice in research.

Belmont Report

Document establishing ethical principles for research involving human subjects.

Informed Consent

Participants must be informed and willingly agree to participate.

Beneficence

Weighing potential benefits against risks to participants.

Justice

Fair distribution of research risks and benefits.

Internal Validity

Degree to which an experiment correctly identifies cause and effect.

External Validity

Degree to which findings can generalize to other settings or populations.

Reliability

Consistency of a measure over time.

Descriptive Statistics

Summarize basic patterns in data.

Inferential Statistics

Estimate the likelihood that findings are due to chance.

Bayesian Statistics

Estimating beliefs based on new data and evidence.