Exam 2 A and P

What is the pH of urine

ranges from 4.5 to 8.2

usually 6.0 (acidic) → normal

What is the normal pH for blood

7.4

What does the urinary system consist of

6 organs:

• 2 kidneys

• 2 ureters

• urinary bladder

• urethra

what affects lymphatic return?

EXERCISING

• significantly increases lymphatic return

(movement/hydration/diet)

Eupnea

relaxed quiet breathing

apnea

temporary cessation (stoppage) of breathing

Dyspnea

labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath

hyperpnea

increased rate and depth of breathing due to pain, exercising, etc.

hyperventilation

increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand

hypoventilation

reduced pulmonary ventilation

Kussmaul respiration

deep, rapid breathing often induced by acidosis

Orthopnea

dyspnea that occurs when a person is laying down

Respiratory Arrest

permanent cessation of breathing

Tachypnea

accelerated respiration

What does COPD stand for?

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

What are some examples of COPD’s?

chronic bronchitis and emphysema

What are 3 types of lung cancer

1. squamous-cell carcinoma

2. small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma

3. adenocarcinoma

What lung cancer is the most common

squamous-cell carcinoma

which lung cancer is the least common?

small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma

which lung cancer is the most dangerous?

small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma

What are the 3 R’s of immunity

recognize, react, remember

What do the words “autoimmune diseases” mean?

failures of self-tolerance

• immune system fails to distinguish self-antigens from foreign ones

How many classes of antibodies are there?

Name them.

5 classes

1. IgA

2. IgD

3. IgE

4. IgG

5. IgM

Name the types of immunity? How many are there?

4 types:

Natural active immunity

Artificial active immunity

Natural Passive immunity

Artificial Passive immunity

describe natural active immunity

producing of ones own antibodies as a result of infection or natural exposure to antigen

describe artificial active immunity

production of one’s own antibodies as a result of vaccination/booster shot against disease

describe natural passive immunity

temporary immunity that results from antibodies produced from another person

• fetus acquires antibodies from mother through milk, placenta

describe artificial passive immunity

temporary immunity that results from the injection of antibodies of another person or animal

• treatment for snakebite

How many parts are there in renal tubules?

Name them.

4 distinct regions

1. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

2. nephron loop

3. Distal convoluted tubule

4. collecting duct

Name the start of nephrons.

Name the end of nephrons.

Name the order.

Start: Glomerular capsule

End: Collecting duct

Glomerular capsule → proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct

Describe the flow of filtrate (fluid)

glomerulus capsule → proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → papillary duct → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra

The right lung has how many:

• lobes?

• fissures?

• lobar (secondary) bronchi?

• segmental (tertiary) bronchi

the right lung has:

• 3 lobes

• 1 horizontal fissure, 1 oblique fissure

• 3 lobar bronchi

• 10 segmental bronchi

The left lung has how many:

• lobes?

• fissures?

• lobar (secondary) bronchi?

• segmental (tertiary) bronchi

the left lung has:

• 2 lobes

• 1 oblique fissure

• 2 lobar bronchi

• 8 segmental bronchi

What are the parts of the pharynx

1. nasopharynx

2. oropharynx

3. laryngopharynx

What makes up the framework of the larynx?

Which ones are paired?

which ones are singular?

9 cartilages

Paired:

• arytenoid cartilage (2)

• corniculate cartilage (2)

• cuneiform cartilage (2)

Singular:

• epiglottic cartilage

• thyroid cartilage

• cricoid cartilage

what is vital capacity?

what is its volume?

total amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled with maximum effort (4700mL)

what is inspiratory capacity?

what is its volume?

maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal expiration (3500mL)

what is functional residual capacity?

what is its volume

the amount of air in lungs that is left over after a normal tidal expansion (2500mL)

what is total lung capacity?

what is its volume?

the total amount of air that can be contained in lung (6000mL)

the measurement of pulmonary function is called

disorders that reduce pulmonary compliance are called

disorders that interfere with airflow by narrowing or blocking airway are called

spirometer

restrictive disorders

obstructive disorders

what is forced expiration volume (FEV)

percentage of vital capacity that can be exhaled in a given time interval

the maximum speed of expiration is called

peak flow

what is minute respiratory volume (MRV)

amount of air that can be inhaled per minute

what is maximum voluntary ventilation

MRV (minute respiratory volume) during heavy exercise

Cortical nephrons:

• _ % of all nephrons

• ___ nephron loops

• efferent arterioles branch into ___

• 85% of all nephrons

• short nephron loops

• efferent arterioles branch into peritubular capillaries

juxtamedullary nephrons:

• _ % of all nephrons

• __ nephron loops

• efferent arterioles branch into the _

• 15% of all nephrons

• Very Long nephron loops

• branch into the vasa recta

The vasa recta is surrounded by what nephron?

the peritubular capillaries are surrounded by what nephron?

vasa recta= juxtamedullary nephrons

peritubular capillaries = cortical nephrons

How many types of white blood cells are there?

Name them.

5

• Neutrophil

• Basophil

• Eosinophil

• Monocyte

• Lymphocyte

function of Neutrophil

wander in connective tissue killing bacteria

create a killing zone

function of Basophils

secrete chemicals (histamine and heparin) to aid in mobility and action of other leukocytes

function of eosinophils

stand guard against parasites, allergens, etc

function of monocytes

transform into macrophages; actively seeking pathogens

function of lymphocytes

circulating blood contains T cells (80%), B cells (15%) and NK cells (5%)

what does nonspecific resistance mean

Give some examples

immunity that is effective against a broad range of pathogens

Ex: skin, fever, leukocytes, macrophages, inflammation

How many sets of tonsils do we have?

Name them.

3 sets

1. Palatine tonsil

2. Lingual tonsil

3. Pharyngeal tonsil

What organs are included in the lymphatic system. Which ones are primary? Which one are secondary?

primary lymphatic organs:

• red bone marrow

• thymus

secondary lymphatic organs

• spleen

• lymph nodes

• tonsils

in which type of lymphatic organ are T and B cells becoming immunocompetent (ability to recognize and respond to antigens)

primary lymphatic organs

• red bone marrow and thymus

What is the most numerous lymphatic organ?

lymph nodes

What is the body largest lymphatic organ

spleen

What are the types of specific immunity

1. cellular immunity (cell-mediated)

2. humoral immunity (antibody-mediated)

describe cellular immunity (cell-mediated)

• is it T or B cell?

• does it directly attack pathogens?

T cells

-yes, does directly attack pathogens

describe humoral immunity (antibody mediated)

• is it T or B cell?

• does it directly attack pathogens?

B cells

No, does not directly attack pathogens

both cellular and humoral immunity occur in _ stages. What are they?

3 stages

• recognize

• react

• remember

(the 3 R’s of immunity)

List the lymphatic cells

6

1. Natural killer (NK) cells

2. T cells

3. B cells

4. Macrophages

5. Dendritic cells

6. Reticular cells

describe natural killer cells

responsible for immune surveillance

attack and destroy bacteria

describe T cells

mature in thymus

describe B cells

activation causes plasma cells to produce antibodies

describe Macrophages

large phagocytic cell

phagocytize foreign matter

antigen presenting cell (APC)

describe dendritic cells

branched cells that alert immune system about a pathogen that has breached the surface

describe reticular cells

branched stationary cell that contribute to the storm of a lymphatic organ. Acts as APC in thymus

the phenomenon in which a cancerous cells breaks free from the original primary site, travels to other sites in body and establishes new tumors is called

metastasis

autonomic breathing is controlled by __ pairs of respiratory centers in the reticular form of the __ and the _ .

autonomic breathing is controlled by 3 pairs of respiratory center; in the medulla oblongata and the pons

name the respiratory groups found in the medulla oblongata

name the respiratory groups found in the pons

in the medulla

• ventral respiratory group (VRG)

  • produces 12 breaths per minute

  • generator of respiratory rhythm

• Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

  • modifies rate and depth of breathing

in the pons

• Pontine respiratory group (PRG)

  • adapts breathing to special circumstances like sleep, exercise

Path of airflow

nasal cavity → pharynx → larynx → trachea → main bronchus → lobar bronchus → segmental bronchus → bronchiole → terminal bronchiole

how many type of alveolar cells are there? Name them.

3 types

1. Squamous alveolar cells (type I)

2. Great alveolar cells (type II)

3. Alveolar macrophages (dust cells)

(T/F): Squamous alveolar cells, great alveolar cells and alveolar macrophages are the 3 types of cells in the alveolar

True

Name the muscles of respiration

diaphragm

external and internal intercostal muscles

scalenes

what is the prime mover of respiration

the diaphragm

what muscle accounts for two-thirds of airflow

what muscle adds 1/3 of airflow

what muscle is synergist to diaphragm and holds rib 1 and 2 stationary during quiet breathing

diaphragm

internal and external intercostal muscle

scalenes

What are the stages of urine formation (when kidneys blood plasma to urine)

3 stages:

1. Glomerular filtration

2. tubular reabsorption and secretion

3. water conservation

What portion/structure concentrated the urine?

collecting duct

What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation

1. redness (rubor)

2. swelling (tumor)

3. heat (calor)

4. pain (dolor

If you inhale something into the lung, which lung would it go into? Why?

aspirated (inhaled) foreign objects lodge ____ bronchus more often the ____

RIGHT. It’s more vertical

right; left

What structures consist of the upper respiratory tract? (superior to inferior)

(nose → larynx )

nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx

What structures consist of the lower respiratory tract (superior to inferior)

(trachea → lungs)

trachea → bronchi → alveolar