CLEP Textbook Part 3

bandwagon effect

increased media coverage of candidates who pull high: leads to a perception that they are more popular, thereby influencing voter behavior.

bradley effect

the difference between a poll result and an election result in which voters gave a socially desirable poll response rather than a true response that might be perceived as racist.

classical liberalism

a political ideology based on belief in individual liberties and rights and the idea of free will, with little role for government: emphasizes limited government intervention in both personal and economic matters.

communism

a political and economic system in which, in theory, government promotes common ownership of all property, means of production, and materials to prevent the exploitation of workers while creating an equal society: in practice, most communist government result to using force to maintain control.

covert content

ideologically slanted information presented as unbiased information in order to influence public opinion.

fascism

a political system of total control by the ruling party or political leader over the economy, the military, society, and culture and often the private lives of citizens: authoritarianism and nationalism, suppressing dissent and promoting propaganda.

margin of error

a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual preferences of the total population of citizens.

modern conservatism

a political ideology that prioritizes individual liberties, preferring a smaller government that stays out of the economy: emphasizes traditional values and limited government intervention in personal and economic affairs.

modern liberalism

a political ideology focused on equality and supporting government intervention in society and the economy if it promotes equality: advocates for social justice, environmental protection, and progressive taxation.

socialism

a political and economic system in which government uses its authority to promote social and economic equality, providing everyone with basic services and equal opportunities and requiring citizens with more wealth contribute more.

theory of delegate representation

a theory that assumes the politician is in office to be the voice of the people and to vote only as the people want.

traditional conservatism

a political ideology supporting the authority of the monarchy and the church in the belief that government provides the rule of law: upholds traditional values, emphasizing stability and continuity in society.

caucus

a form of candidate nomination that occurs in a town-hall style format rather than a day-long election: usually reserved for presidential elections.

closed primary

an election in which only voters registered with a party may vote for that party’s candidates: restricts participation to party members, ensuring that only dedicated party members influence candidate selection.

coattail effect

the result when a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from his or her party win their own elections: leads to increased voter turnout for candidates down the ballot who share the same party affiliation.

delegates

party members who are chosen to represent a particular candidate at the party’s state or national-level nominating convention.

initiative

law or constitutional amendment proposed and passed by the voters and subject to review by the state courts: also called a proposition: allows citizens to directly propose legislation, involves approval of petetion, collection of singantures, and state-wide vote during a ballot election.

open primary

an election in which any registered voter may vote in any party’s primary or caucus.

political action committees (PACs)

organization created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics.

referendum

a yes or no vote by citizens on a law or candidate proposed by the state government: often used to gauge public opinion on specific issues.

residency requirement

the stipulation that citizen must live in a state for a determined period of time before a citizen can register to vote as a resident of that state.

shadow campaign

a campaign run by political action committees (PACs) and other organization without the coordination of the candidate: operates outside official campaign financing laws, influencing the election's outcome through independent expenditures.

super PACs

organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate but not contribute directly to a candidate or strategize with a candidate’s campaign, operate independently of the campaign, officially known as independent Expenditure-Only Committees.

top-two primary

a primary election in which the two candidates with the most votes, regardless of party, become the nominees for the general election.

Help America Vote Act (2002)

federal law aimed at improving the administration of elections in the US, providing funding for new voting systems and addressing issues like voter access and election security.

Shelby v. Holder (2013)

Supreme Court case that invalidated key provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, particularly the formula used to determine which jurisdictions were required to seek federal approval before changing their voting laws.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

Supreme Court case that ruled that struck down limits on independent political spending by corporations and labor unions under the first amendment: voided campaign finance laws: business and organization run campaign ads and support candidates, resulting in super PACs.

National Voter Registration Act

Federal law that requires states to offer voter registration opportunities at the same time as applying for a driver's license or social services, aimed at increasing voter participation.

citizen journalism

video and print news posted to the internet or social media by citizens rather than the new media.

cultivation theory

the idea that media affect a citizen’s worldview through the information presented.

equal-time rule

an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities: attempting to ensure fairness in political broadcasting.

fairness doctrine

a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner.

freedom of information act (FOI)

a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens: allows individuals to access government records, enhancing public involvement in governance.

hypodermic theory

the idea that information is placed in a citizen’s brain and accepted: suggests that media messages are absorbed by audiences without critical thinking or resistance, implying a direct and powerful influence on public opinion.

libel

printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization.

minimal effects theory

the idea that the media have little effect on citizens: posits that individuals actively interpret media messages, often reinforcing existing beliefs rather than changing them.

muckraking

news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices.

prior restraint

a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (ex: forbidding someone to publish a book he plans to release).

reporter’s privilege

the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential: reporters to protect the identity of their sources from government inquiries or legal proceedings.

slander

spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization: involves false statements that are presented as facts and can lead to legal action.

sunshine laws

laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public.

yellow journalism

sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories: prioritizes headlines over accuracy and can mislead readers.

conglomerates

large media corporations that own many stations and other companies: they therefore can create a monopoly and decrease the flow of information to the public.