AP Psychology Unit 0: Introduction to Psychological Science Practices

Random Sample

AKA Random Selection. Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the experiment

Random Selection

AKA Random Sample. Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the experiment

Random Assignment

All members have an equal chance of being placed into either experiemental group(s) or the control group(s)

Representative Sample

Characteristics of the sample are very similar to those of the population

Population

All individuals who can potentially participate in the study

Reliability

The study's results are stable and consistent. Makes it able to be replicated to receive similar results

Validity

Research study accurately measures what it is intended to measure and whether the conclusions drawn are justified

Independent Variable (Manipulated Variable)

The cause. The variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

The effect. The variable that is affected by the change in the independent variable

Confounding Variable

Factors that isn't the independent variable that may influence results

Experimental Group

Group where the independent variable is manipulated

Control Group

Comparisson groups that do not receive special treatment

Placebo Group

Participants who think they are tin he experimental group but are not

Single-blind design

Participants are ignorant about if they have the placebo or special treatment

Double-blind design

Both participants and half of the staff are unaware of the placebo being in place

Placebo Effect

Experimental results affected by participant expectations

Mode

The score that occurs most frequently in a data set

Mean

The arithmetic average of the scores in a data set

Median

The halfway point in a data set; half the scores fall above this score, half fall below

Range

The difference between each score and the mean of a data set

Standard of Deviation

The average difference between each score and the mean of a data set

Correlation Coefficient

How strongly two variables are related and whether the relationship is positive or negative

Tests of Significance

How likely the difference between measures of central tendencies or the size of a correlation coefficient is due to chance alone

Tests of Effect Size

Measures the strength of the relationships between variables or the magnitude of difference between groups; can be used to evaluate whether a statistically significant finding has a practical significance

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Behavior

Anything an organism does, any action that we can observe and record

Mental Processes

Our internal, subjective experiences

Scientific Method

Our internal subjective experiences. Ex: sensations, perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, feelings

Empirical data

Evidence that comes from observation and experimentation

Theory

A highly researched, rigorously tested framework for understanding some aspect of human behavior or thought

Hypothesis

A testable prediction that applies only to the study at hand. More narrow than a theory

Variable

Factor or condition that can change or vary and that is measured, manipulated, or controlled by the researcher

Falsifiability

The prediction in the hypothesis must be sufficiently precise that if it is wrong, it is disprovable through experiment

Peer Review

A process to ensure the quality and credibility of published work; evaluated by one or more experts in the same field

Replication

Conducting an experiment or a study again to verify and confirm the original findings

Methodology

Specifies the details of the study's methods to allow it to be replicated in the future

Operational Definitions

Detailed statement of how a study variable will be defined, measured, manipulated, and/or changed

Quantitative Data

Measured variables numerically; the data is objective and measurable

Qualitative Data

Measures variables narratively; the data is more subjective and structured

Likert Scale

Questions asked by researchers that fall on a numerical continuum

Structured Interview

Sets of standardized questions in an interview

Surveys

Questionnaires or interviews that are administered to large groups of people

Bias

Some error that distorts research, leading to wrong conclusions

Framing

The wording of questions can have a strong effect on the way people respond

Self-Report Bias

Occurs when people report their behavior inaccurately

Social Desirability Bias

Respondents provide answers that are inaccurate because they want to present themselves in a positive way

Population of Interest

All individuals who can potentially participate in the study

Sample

A smaller group within the population that is representative

Sampling Bias

Occurs when certain individuals or groups within the population have a higher or lower chance of being selected for the study

Convenience Sampling

Participants are selected because they are easily accessible to the researcher

Participant Bias

Participant expectations influence result

Experimenter Bias

Bias caused when researchers unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Hawthorne Effect

Research participants behave differently when observed

Case Study

in-depth examination of the behavior or mental processes of a specific person, group, or phenomenon

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in a natural setting without manipulating the situation

Observer Bias

Observations can be distorted if observers expect to see certain behaviors

Correlational Studies

Non-experimental research method that describes the relationship between 2 or more variables

Correlation

A statistical measure of the extent to which two variables are related, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

Positive Correlation

2 variables move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

2 variables move in the opposite direction

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots designed to display correlational data so that the relationship between the 2 variables is visible

Correlation Coefficient(r)

The statistic used to describe the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

Strong Correlation

1

Weak Correlation

-1

Directionality Problem

2 variables that are correlated do not tell us which variable is the cause and which is the effect

Third Variable Problem

An unseen variable causes false impression of a direct relationship between the 2 variables being studied

Illusory Correlation

Perceivable relationship between 2 things, but in reality have no relationship

Meta-Analysis

Analyzes the results of multiple studies to make conclusions

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Reviews any study to determine if the proposal is ethical or if it poses risk to those involved

No Coercion

No force can be applied to require individuals to comply with any aspect of a research design

Informed Consent

Participants must be told all the details of the study and what their role is, and must sign that they agree to participate

Informed Assent

Given to minors to agree to participate, on top of parents' giving informed consent

Minimizing Harm

Researchers should take reasonable steps to avoid causing physical or psychological distress, harm, or suffering

Confidentiality and Anonymity

Identities of participants in a study must be kept confidential

Deception

Only mislead participants if the researchers believe it is necessary for the efficacy of the study and IRB agrees

Confederate

An actor who is given a role to play in a study so that the social context can be manipulated

Debriefing

Explanation of a study that researchers provide to participants after the study is over

Little Albert(Watson)

Classical conditioning correlating sound to physical reaction experiment involving a baby, animals, and a hammer

Milgram Obedience Experiment

Psychology of obedience/authority using fake shock buttons, deception, and teachers

Stanford Prison Experiment

College students play cops and prisoners, which leads to a superiority complex and long-lasting physical and mental trauma

Central Tendency

Mean, median, mode

Frequency Distribution

A table that tallies the frequency of each response received

Measures of Variation

Range, Standard deviation

Bidmodal distributions

Distribution with 2 modes/peaks

Normal Distribution

bell shape, symmetric with the mean, median, and mode placed all at the center

Positively Skewed Distribution

Tail on the right, less values toward the higher numbers

Negatively Skewed Distribution

Tail on the left, less values at the lower numbers

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average.

Standard Deviation

The average distance from the mean for a set of scores

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that helps researchers provide certain solutions (inferences) about the population of interest based on ample data

Statistical Significance

The result is unlikely to be due to chance

Probability/ P-Value

Gives the difference between groups is due to chance rather than due to the manipulation of the independent variable

P Value Cut Off

0.05 or 5% of probability that the results occurred by chance

Effect Size

A statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of a difference between 2 or more groups