Germany

Instability at end of war

Political- Kaiser Willhelm had lost control of Germany. 7 November 1918 the capital of Bavaria workers declared a strike and protested in the streets. Led by a Jewish communist named Kurt Eisner. In Stuttgart at the Daimler plant, workers went on strike

Economic- Farming had been disrupted as . By 1918 Germany only produced 50% of the milk and 60% of the butter and meat that it had produced before the war. devt from 50 billion to 150 navy had blockaded ports

Military- 11 million Germans had fought in the war. Almost 2 million German troops died and over 4 million were wounded - so 55% of German troops became casualties. October 1918 some crews in the German navy mutinied

strengths and weaknesses of weimar

Proportional representation, 1 seat 60,000 votes, smaller parties represented but 9 coalition governments 1919-23 alone

Women vote +  age lowered from 25 to 21, 

Article 48 meant chancellor could ask president to pass emergency laws, Ebert used 63 times from 23-24

Reichsrat could challenge laws unless two third of Reichstag voted against, lander retained power over schools and police

Treaty of Vesailles

Military Army not to exceed 100,000. No aircraft permitted. No naval vessels greater than 10,000 tons, 6 cruiser, 6 battleships, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats. Rhineland which bordered France demilitarised

Politics and Finance Coal to be mined in the Saar by France, £6.6 billion in reparations, can’t join league of nations, 231 war guilt

Land All colonies to be given to allied powers (11) 10% of population and 13% of their land mass Upper Silesia became part of Poland, Northern Schleswig Denmark, Posen and west Prussia to Poland. No Anschluss with Austria

Stab in the back

theory that army had not been defeated in war, betrayed by politicians, labelled as ‘November criminals’

Sparticist revolt

Led by Rosa Luxemburg or ‘Red Rosa’ and Karl Liebknecht. 4 Jan 1919 Ebert sacked Amil Eichorn, police chief popular with workers. Thousands of workers took to the streets in protest Spartacists called for an uprising. 6 Jan over 100,000 workers took to the streets, Seized government newspaper and telegraph offices Ebert ordered the army to organise demobilised soldiers after war into ‘Freikorps’. It was estimated they numbered 250,000 by March 1919. 13 Jan rebels had been driven off the streets. 100 Spartacists killed in comparison to 13 Freikorp. Demonstrated power of left but also added to unrest of right.

Kapp Putsch

13 March 1920 soldiers were due to be disbanded and because they feared unemployment, they turned against the Republic. Thousand men armed with guns marched on Berlin, had control of the city, declared a new government and invited the Kaiser to return from exile. Many real government members fled to Berlin, told workers they should go on strike, gas, electricity, water, and transport stopped, and the capital thus ground to a halt.

Political assassinations

Between 1919 and 1922 there were 376 political murders, mostly of left wing or moderate politicians. Hugo Haasse, one of Ebert’s Council of People's Representatives, was murdered in 1919. Matthias Erzberger, the politician who signed the surrender to the Allies in 1918 was shot and killed in August 1921. Walther Rathenau, the Weimar Foreign Minister, was machine-gunned to death in Berlin in 1922.

Conservative judges sympathetic and gave light punishments

Challenges of 1923

December 1922 Germany failed to send coal to France. French invaded the Ruhr in January 1923. Workers went on strike, French and Belgian soldiers were tough with the strikers. Over 100 of them were killed and 150000 people were thrown out of their homes as a punishment, government had to pay them but were only generating 25% of what was needed. The Ruhr contained 80% of German coal iron and steel reserves. 

In 1923 the government had 300 paper mills and 2000 printing shops dedicated to printing more bank notes.in 1919 bread was worth 1 mark, in 1922 100 marks, in 1923 to 200000 billion marks

Rentenmark

November 1923, Stresemann, supply tightly controlled and back by gold, August 1924 Reichsbank given control and renamed Reichsmark, stopped hyperinflation.

Dawes plan + US loans

1924, Charles Dawes designed to pay reparations, installments temporarily reduced to 50 million a year, US banks agreed to make loans

First loan was 800 million German marks, Over the next six years USA companies gave loans of nearly US$3,000 million. Industrial production increased again to more than it was before 1923, Germany dependant upon the US

Young plan

August 1929, committee led by Owen Young proposed plan, reparations debt from 6.6 to 2 billion, made until 1988, lower taxes for German, opposition from extremists who felt it was extending burden

Locarno pact

1925 Germany signed the Locarno pact with Britain, France, Belgium, and Italy, agreed to keep existing borders between Germany, Belgium, and France and permanent demilitarisation of the Rhineland. Increased popularity of Weimar, improved relations with France, not imposed

League of nations

To sign the Locarno pact Germany had to be a part of the League of Nations, excluded 1920, joined 1926, showed Germany counted

Kellogg- Briand Pact

1928, agreement between 62 nations they would keep their armies for self-defence and solve all international disputes, further improved relations between the USA and the leading European nations, showed Germany was a leading power

Changes in living 24-49

initiatives to stimulate the building of new houses and apartments. By 1928, homelessness had been reduced by more than 60%. Between 1924 and 1929, 101,000 homes built

By 1928,increase in real wages of over 10%, 1925 - 50 hour, 1927 - 46 hour

Unemployment benefits and assistance to war veterans, wives of the war dead, single mothers and the disabled.1927 policy extended, workers would make contributions to a national unemployment scheme. 3%

Changes in women 24-29

1919 women over the age of 20 could vote, 90% turned out at elections. By 1926 there were 32 female deputies in the Reichstag, higher than the proportion of those in Britain and the USA.

Could be unescorted, drinking and smoking in public, wearing short skirts. Those who worked in civil services earned the same as men. By 1933 there were 100,000 female teachers and 3000 female doctors.

Changes in culture 24-29

New operas and plays began to emerge called Zeittheatre and Zeitoper, featured more realism. Bahaus school 1919 Walter Gropius

Strict pre-war censorship was removed. In the 1920s Berlin challenged Paris as the cultural capital of Europe with new developments in painting, art, architecture, literature and theatre.

\believed art should comment on the society of the time. This was known as, ‘Neue Sachlichkeit’, Otto Dix George Grosz expression

Early Hitler

German Workers party, DAP set up Feb 1919, H joined sep 1919, became second in command 1920, suggest new name National socialist German workers party (nazi), July 1921 took control

25 point pogram

increase pensions, nationalise industry, get rid of Versailles, build army, No jews, expand, state must protect mothers and infants

SA

made from unempolyed ex soldiers, August 1921 formed, under command of Ernst Rohm

Munich Putsch causes

Hyperinflation and occupation of Ruhr had made life hard for German people, and the Weimar Republic was on the verge of collapse. Hitler wanted to exploit this discontent. 

Growth of Nazis- By 1923, the Nazi party had 55,000 members and was stronger than ever before, huge army of storm troopers, but he knew he would lose control of them if he did not give them something to do.

Resentment of Weimar government, reparations, stab in the back

Munich Putsch events

Plotted with 2 politicians - Kahr and Lossow. 4 October 1923, they called off the rebellion. impossible for Hitler, who had 3,000 troops ready to fight, 8 November 1923, Hitler and 600 storm troopers burst into a meeting that K+ L were holding at the local Beer Hall. Hitler forced them to agree to rebel at gunpoint, SA took over the army headquarters. 9 November 1923, Hitler and his Nazis went into Munich on what they thought would be a triumphal march

Kahr had called in police and army reinforcements. There was a short scuffle in which the police killed 16 Nazis (Nazis only had 2,000 rifles) and 4 police died

Munich putsch consequences

5 years imprisonment but he only served 9 months, had his own room, was allowed as many visitors

The trial received huge publicity, for 24 days it lasted it was front page news, wrote Mein Kampf spread his views, ban on NSAP lifted 1925

Nazi 1924-28

May 1928 2.6% of vote (32 24 to 12 28), from 27,000 to 100,000 25-27

many now supported Weimar as 1925 Paul von Hindenburg became president, nationalist beliefs won over right

Stresemann policies improved Germany and support for moderate increased, SPD 30%

Bamberg conference

1926, Strasser and Goebbels in northern industrial areas emphasised socialist party,

Other leaders, hitler himself, national, Hspoke for 5 hours, made an effort to win Goebells to his side.Goebells promoted to Gauleiter of Berlin as a reward. Strasser pledged loyalty but Hitler never believed him, murdered in 1934

Great depression NS

October 1929 US investors lost 4 billion. January 1933, six million workers were unemployed. This included 50% of all Germans between 16-30 years old, 40% of factory workers and 60% of university graduates., real wages in 1932 were 70% of those in 1928, violence broke out, 24% increase in arrests in berlin. The President had to use Article 48 to pass laws through parliament, more likely extreme

Communist NS

10% supported KPD  in 1928, 15% in 1932, This represented a million extra voters and the largest communist party outside of Russia, big businesses support nazis as a result

SA support

uniformed SA made the Nazis seem organised, had a stronger private army than the communists. By 1930, the SA had 400,000 stormtroopers. In contrast the KPD’s Red Front Fighters only had 130,000.

Hitler chancellor

April 1932, SA banned by bruning, hindenburg stands for reelection, may hind relected, bruning resigned replaced by von papen (forward by schleicher) VS suggests calition between right wind, H agrees if Sa ban removed, July Nazis get 38% (from 18% in 1930) demsnds to be chancellor, rejected, Nov further election Nazis still high Schleicher warns hind if Vp stays there will be civil war, Dec VC chancellor, Jan VS has no support, suggests being head of military dictatorhsip is refused, VP presuades hind to appoint H to avoid VS dictatorship, suggests he should be Vice chancellor, it works

Early propaganda

mass rallies and marches to give the impression of discipline and order, simple slogans ‘work and bread’, 1932, the Nazis began to develop close links with the DNVP, newspaper tycoon, and permitted the Nazis to publish articles which attacked Bruning. By the early 1930s, the Nazis owned 120 daily or weekly newspapers, used radio

Reasons hitler became chancellor

Nazi organisation - SA, 1932, 600,000 copies of the Nazi economic programme distributed, Thyssen, Krupp and Bosch industrialists who secured funds from

Promises-promised to solve Germany’s economic problem. If they found that a policy was unpopular they would simply drop it.Red Front Fighters. RFB, countless fights between them and the SA. It played to Hitler’s ideal that he could stamp out the Bolshevik violence and their threat of revolution., blamed Jews

Propaganda

Reichstag fire

Jan 1933 hitler was in a weak position, Vote fell from 37% to 33%

27 February 1933. Fire. Dutch Communist was found at the scene, claimed it was a Communist plot to take over Germany. That night 4000 Communist leaders were arrested by the police. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to grant him emergency powers. As a result, thousands who opposed were arrested

New election 5 March 1933, used the police and the SA to put pressure on their political opponents. More than 50 opponents were killed best ever election result, with 44% of the vote.

enabling act

24^th March 1933, could pass laws without going through the Reichstag, needed to get a 2/3 majority. Communist Party was banned from voting (81 seats), the Centre Party were persuaded to vote in favour. Only the Social Democrats voted against it. Hitler won 444 votes to 94

banning of parties + unions

2 May 1933 Trade Unions Taken Over, merged into one organisation, the new German Labour Front (DAF) controlled by the Nazis.banned strikes

July 1933. All Political Parties Banned, no new parties could also be set up to challenge the Nazis. Nov 1933 95.2% of electorate voted and Nazis won 39,638,000 (three million ballots spoiled in protest)

Policy before Reichstag fire

4 February 1933- Decree setting up Auxiliary police force, all election meetings had to notify police at least 48 hours before. Allowed Nazi-controlled police to break up meetings, particularly useful in prussia where Nzi, Hermann Goering was minister of interior and controlled police

17 February 1933 Goering told police force nationalist meetings were not to be impeded but he would cover for those who used firearms to break up communists

22 February- Georing appointed members of SA as auxiliary police officers, giving them the same rein as official police.

Night of long knives

29-30 June 1934. SA began to alarm Hitler, 3 million members. Rohm was also a potential rival for power+ needed to reassure army who were smaller. leaders of the SA were dragged to Nazi HQ, and shot dead. Rohm was arrested and shot in prison after he refused to commit suicide. 400 murdered

Death of Hindenburg, hitler fuhrer

2 August 1934, Hitler made himself President as well as Chancellor.

army oath

August 1934, army took an oath of loyalty, Hitler was now Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces

Gestapo

Set up by Goering in 1933, led by Heydrich, plain clothes and spies, send people to concentration camps

SS + SD

SS, Himmler 1925, led by him, black uniforms, controlled police and security, members married pure wives, ran camps
SD, Himmler 1931, led by Heydrich, wore uniforms spied on opponents

Concentration camps up to 1939

First in Dachau 1933, isolated areas, political prisoners and undesirables

Control of legal system

Judges were removed and all had to be part of NSRB .Oct 1933, Germany lawyers font established, more than 10,000 members by the end of they year, had to strive by Hitlers values. 1934 a new people's court established to try treason, couldn't be appealed. Between 1934-39 534 people sentenced to death for political offences, abolished jury

Propaganda Radio + Newspaper 33-39

Radio-cheap radio sets,the DKE cost 35 marks 1933 Radio stations were censored. 1939, 70% of German families owned a radio, installed in public places + Loudspeakers were installed in the streets to broadcast messages loudly. The People’s Radio lacked shortwave reception meaning it was difficult to hear foreign broadcasts

Newspaper-  RMVP set up March 1933. October 1933, law made editors responsible for infringements of government directives, they had to exclude anything weakening the strength of the Reich. Nazi’s own publishing house, Eher Verlad, took over most of the press. Nazi ownership of the media grew from 3% in 1933 to 69% in 1939. By 1935, the Nazis had closed down over 1,600 newspapers and thousands of magazines.

propaganda sport + rallies 33-39

famous mass rallies were held every year at Nuremberg. They lasted a week and were held in four specially built arenas, one could hold 400,000 and they attracted almost 1,000,000 people a year.

1936 the olympics were staged in Berlin. Anti jewish signs disappeared as did ant-Jew Newspaper, tried demonstrate to 49 countries the physical ‘superiority’ of the ‘master race’. The Olympic stadium was the largest in the world and could hold 110,000 spectators. Germany won more medals than any other nation (33 gold, 26 silver, 30 bronze

control of culture

Film 100 films made every year, audiences exceeded 250 million in 1933. accompanied with a 45 minute official newsreel which glorified Hitler. 1940, three anti semitic films, awful in the box office, many fainted

Literature was heavily censored, 2,500 books banned. Millions of books were burned on bonfires. In May 1933, a burning book ceremony in Berlin burned 20,000, 600,00 people attended the exhibition house of german arts

Architecture stone, represents 1000 year Reich

control of church

July 1933 concordat, Catholics could carry on their religious work, IN RETURN stay out of politics (1/3 population).combined 2000 protestant churches into Reich church in 1933 (2/3 population)

H went against agreement, priests arrested, youth organisations shut 1926, church schools shut 1939

Extent of support

36% votes in 1932 presidential election, 38% votes july 1932 general election. Four million people joined 1933-39

Political opposition

The KPD encouraged workers to oppose the nazis. Workers sometimes undermined Nazi building projects by staying off work sick or deliberately damaging machines

General Ludwig Beck was Chief of Staff in the German Army. In 1938, he tried to get his fellow officers to arrest Hitler. sent a message to the British army, saying that the German army wouldn’t fight if Britain attacked Germany. Beck led plots to kill Hitler in 1943 and 44.

In 1933, the SPD printed an opposition newspaper, the Red Shock Troop, with a circulation of 3,000 copies. The organisers were arrested and sent to concentration camps. SPD leaders then set up SOPADE - the SPD abroad

Church opposition

Pastor Martin Niemoller, voted for Nazis in 1924 + 33 but didn’t like their interference with church and opposed views on jews. Confessing church 1934, made up of 6000 churches, opposed nazis, arrested for speaking out, sent to concentration camp in 1938 where he stayed until 1945

Edelweiss pirates

Emerged in late 1930s, mainly working class, they called themselves ‘roving dudes’. 1939 membership 2000. resented military discipline, Nazi youth groups. Boys wore their hair longer, copied clothing of america, hung around street corners and would taunt Hitler youth.

The swing youth'

Middle class youth loved american culture and music. They got together to listen to jazz, dance, drink alcohol and smoke, organised illegal dances with 6,000 youth

Nazi attitudes for women

natural, aryan, stay at home Kinder, kuche, kirche, sturdy build to bear children

German Women’s Enterprise (DFW)

gave the Nazis control of all the women’s groups in Germany

Eventually, the German Women’s Enterprise had six million members

by 1939, 1.7 million women had attended Nazi courses on subjects such as childcare, cooking and sewing

Nazi policy encouraging children

Law for the Encouragement of Marriage (1933) Loans up to 1000 marks given to young, married couples,For each child born, a quarter of the lone would be paid off

Divorce Laws (1938) If a women couldn't conceive or had an abortion, it was grounds to get a divorce

The Mother’s Cross Award for giving birth, Mothers of 10 had hitler as the godfather,

Lebensborn- 1935 by Himmler, provided nurseries and financial aid for women who had children with SS men, later encouraged single women 1938-41 540 mothers gave birth, 1936 30% more births than 1933

Nazi policy decouraging women work

1933: Women banned from professional posts such as teachers doctors and civil servants, 1934 360,000 had given up work

1936: No woman could be a judge, lawyer, or do jury service

1937: Grammar school for girls banned and number of students starting higher education fell from 17000 in 1932 to 6000 in 1939

Policy encouraging women working

1937 Germany was re-arming for a future war, women were needed in factories. Marriage and motherhood loans were abolished and women had to do one ‘duty year’ of compulsory work, normally on a farm or in a factory. 1937: women with marriage loans were allowed to work. Because of this, compared with the five million women in work in 1933, there were actually seven million in work by 1939.

Nazi youth groups

By 1938 1.2 million boys in the Hitler youth were being trained in small-arms shooting. Naval Hitler Youth 45,000 members, Motor Hitler Youth 60,000 members, Flying Hitler Youth 74,000 members.

Membership: 5.4 million in 1936 to 8 million in 1939 but End of 1938 – 3 million hadn’t joined. Hitler Youth Law 1936- Impossible for any young person to avoid joining. Second Hitler Youth Law in 1939 – membership was compulsory and members had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler.

League of german maidens- cookery housework, babies

Nazi policy education

In 1933 Membership of the NSDAP was made compulsory for civil servants and by 1936, 36% of teachers were party members. In 1935 the Nationalist socialist teachers alliance replaced all teacher unions.

12,000 unsuitable university lectures removed. Textbooks: rewritten to fit Nazi view of history and racial purity, mein kampf became standard text. 1937, 97% of teachers had joined nazi teacher’s league. 1939 200,000 teachers attended nazi political education courses

Job creation schemes

Introduced road building scheme to provide germany with 7,000 km of motorway, only 3,000 built in 1938- more than 125,000 men involved. 1933, first autobahn started by hitler, first stretch opened may 1935, building stadium for olympics

Rearmament, Conscription reintroduced 1935, army grew form 100,000 in 1933 to 1.4 million 1939

Reich labour service

Reich labour service

1935, compulsory for all men 18-25 to serve in the corps for six months., building coastal walls and motorways. Workers lived in camps, received low pay and carried out military drill- 422,000 1935

Invisible unemployment

Jews dismissed from jobs, unmarried men under 25 pushed into national labour schemes, women dismissed from job or who left to get married, opponents of the nazis in concentration camps, part time workers not included as unemployed. Went from 4.8 million unempoyed 1933 to 0.3 million 1939

Strength through joy kdf

Sponsored a range of leisure and cultural trips. Concerts, theatre visits. Provided ed at low cost, 1938 10 million to KdF holidays. Beauty of Labour, Department under Kdf to improve work conditions. Organised building of canteens, swimming pools, sports facilities. Caused resentment as improvements were carried out in spare time without pay

Negative living 33-39

1938 labour front organised volkswagen ‘people's car’, five marks a week eventually allowing them to acquire a car. 1939, not a single customer had taken delivery of a car, no money refunded

Average weekly rages from 86 marks in 1932 to 109 marks in 1938. All basic groceries except fish cost more. Average working hours in industry increased from 42.9 in 1933 to 47 in 1939

Minority persecution laws

Concentration Camps- 1936 people being sent to camps.1938, 11,000 rounded up many sent to Buchenwald. 1938 gypsies added to list

Euthanasia campaigns- 1939 euthanasia campaign, 6,000 handicapped babies, children and teens killed by lethal injection/ starvation. Also killed with carbon monoxide, gas chambers built in 6 mental asylums, 72,000 killed before protests stopped programs in 1941

July 1933 ‘law for the prevention of hereditary diseased offspring’ anyone who suffered from ‘feeble-mindedness’, ‘manic depression’, ‘serious physical deformities’, ‘hereditary blindness or deafness’ or were ‘seriously alcoholic’ could be sterilised.Over 320,000 , over 100 deaths

Homosexuality statistics

1935 laws tightened, 766 males imprisoned, 1936 over 4000 1938 8000

Released homosexuals often sent to concentration camps, 5,000 died there

Laws encouraged voluntary castration

Boycott of Jewish shops

April 1st 1933 – one day boycott of Jewish shops and businesses, SA placed themselves outside of Jewish businesses Star of David painted on shops

Jewish Laws

April 7th 1933 – Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service Jewish teachers, doctors , lawyers forced to resign

some exemptions – Those that had fought in WW1, or had lost a father or son in WW1

Sep 1933 banned from inheriting land. 1934 local council banned jews from public spaces, parks swimming pools, 1938 passports stamped with J, 1939 emigraition office established, barred from owning businesses

Nuremberg Laws

15 September 1935- Reich citizenship law, only those of German blood could become a citizen, jews lost citizenship right to vote

Law for the protection of German blood and honour- marriage or sexual relationships between jews and germans banned, marriages before this law were still legal but encouraged to divorce/

Kristallnacht

7th November 1938 17 year old Polish Jew, Herschel Grynszpan shot Ernst Vom Rath. Goebells used incident to stir trouble,

9-10th Nov. violence 18 year old jew thrown from a third story window. Official figures (underestimates) listed 814 shops, 171 homes and 191 synagogues destroyed. 100 jews killed. 7,500 actual businesses. Jews were fined 1 billion marks to pay for the damage, by november 12, 20,000 jews had been rounded up and sent to concentration camps

Jewish couldn’t make any insurance claims. 30 April 1939 Jews were evicted from their homes and forced into designated Jewish accommodation or ghettos. .By summer 1939, about 250,000 Jews had left Germany