History iGCSE - Key Question 6 - How Secure was the USSR's Control Over Eastern Europe

Why/How did the USSR take control of Europe?

Following the end of WW2, Eastern Europe experienced a power vacuum. Many of these countries had been part of the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and Stalin felt this would be a good opportunity to take them back.
- Stalin helped communist parties get power in these countries and made sure they followed Soviet policies using the Cominform.
- Law and order needed to be restored in Eastern Europe, which gave the excuse to leave Soviet troops in these territories.
- The economies of Eastern European countries were shattered. Governments followed economic policies of USSR to restore them. Through Comecon, Stalin made sure these countries traded with the USSR. He promised aid to countries that worked with the USSR.
- Eastern Europe was a buffer zone against the West, which Stalin felt was necessary due to Truman’s secrecy about the atom bomb and Marshall Aid in an attempt to “contain” communism.
- Stalin wanted to benefit from the resources with Eastern Europe.

What was Cominform?

Cominform was a political organisation set up on Stalin’s orders and gave him a way of directing and controlling governments of the satellite states. They were encouraged to concentrate on trading with Cominform members and all contact with non-communist members were discouraged.

What was Comecon?

Comecon was made to provide aid in line with communist ideologies. Comecon supported the economic development of USSR’s satellite states and its main activity was to arrange trade and credit agreements between member countries. Trade with the USA and West was discouraged.

What was impact of Soviet control on ordinary people?

Loss of freedom - Countries that had a long tradition of free speech suddenly lost the right to criticise the government. Newspapers were censored. Non-communists were imprisoned by the secret police for criticising the government, and people were forbidden to travel to the West.
Loss of wealth - Despite the economic recovery between 1945 and 1955, wages began to fall behind those in other countries. People were short of coal to heat their houses and clothes became expensive. Eastern Europe was not allowed to accept Marshall Aid which would have helped this problem.
Lack of consumer goods - People could not consumer goods like radios, electrical kettles and televisions which were becoming common in the west. Factories didn’t produce what ordinary people wanted, they produced what the USSR wanted, such as machinery or electrical cable.

What did Khrushchev do when he came into power?

- Ended USSR’s long feuds with China and Yugoslavia
- Talked to the West about “peaceful coexistence”
- Made plans to reduce expenditure on arms
- Attended the first post-war summit between the USSR, France, USA and Britain in July 1955
- Said he wanted to improve the living standards of ordinary citizens

What was de-Stalinisation?

It was an attempt led by Khrushchev to move away from Stalin’s oppressive rule and make the Soviet system less harsh. He publicly denounced Stalin as a “wicked tyrant” and:
- Closed down Cominform
- Released thousands of political prisoners
- Agreed to pull Soviet troops out of Austria
- Invited Marshall Tito (Yugoslavia leader) to Moscow
- Dismissed Stalin’s Foreign Minister Molotov
- Seemed to be signalling to Eastern Europe that they would have more independence and control in their own affairs

What was the Warsaw Pact?

Created in 1955, it had a similar policy to that of NATO, in which members would defend each other if one was attacked. It was created in order to create a buffer against the West.

What was life like in Hungary from 1949 to 1956?

Hungary was led by hardline Communist Rakosi. The Hungarians had lost their freedom of speech and lived in fear of the secret police. Religion was banned, and Cardinal Joseph Mindszenty, the head of the Catholic Church in Hungary was imprisoned. Hungarian history was not taught in school, with signs and shops being in Russian. The Hungarians also had to pay for Soviet forces to be in Hungary.

Why did the Hungarians rebel?

- They resented the government
- They thought the USA and UN would get involved and help them
- Khrushchev had refused to allow 400 political opponents be arrested following an uprising after Stalin’s death. The Hungarians thought the USSR was changing their policy.
- In June 1956, Poland had risen against Soviet rule, which led to USSR giving in to some of their demands. The Hungarians thought the USSR would also give in to their demands.

What happened in the Hungarian Uprising?

On the 23rd of October 1956, students began to peacefully protest against the government. They pulled down the statue of Stalin in Budapest. Overnight, Soviet troops had been sent to stamp down the protests but despite this, Gero (who had replaced Rakosi) was replaced by Nagy. Nagy had promised reforms, he allowed freedom of speech, allowed religion, got the USSR to withdraw their troops and also announced on the 3rd of November that Hungary would be withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact. On the 4th of November, the Red Army entered Hungary again. Nagy was taken back to Moscow and killed and Kadar took his place as Prime Minister.

Why were the USSR against Hungary leaving the Warsaw Pact?

They were worried that if Hungary left Communism and the Warsaw Pact, then it would spread to the rest of the Eastern Bloc. This would lead to a fall of control that the USSR wanted to avoid and they also would lose their buffer against the West.

What was life like in Czechoslovakia between 1948 and 1968?

Czechoslovakia was ruled by Novotny. He was not popular because:
- There was a lot of censorship and a lack of free speech
- Farmers had to follow Communist guidelines and modernising the industry was discouraged
- The economy was declining and the living standards for workers were poor

When did the students protest and what were the results?

Students began to peacefully protest in 1966. Novotny asked for assistance from Brezhnev, but he refused, which lead to Novotny getting replaced by Dubcek.

What were Dubcek’s reforms?

- Border with West Germany opened to encourage trade
- Free elections, opposition parties were allowed
- Freedom of speech
- Trade unions and workers had more power
- Industry was decentralised
- The state was less involved in everyday life
- Standard of living increased
- Secret police had less power
- Freedom to travel abroad

How did Brezhnev respond to Dubcek’s reforms?

Brezhnev was concerned because he thought it would lead to the downfall of Communism in Czechoslovakia, which would eventually lead to the fall of Communism in the rest of the Eastern Bloc. He responded by creating the Brezhnev Doctrine and sending 500,000 Soviet troops (the Red Army) to Czechoslovakia.

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

Brezhnev stated that all Communist states must follow two rules:
- All countries must remain in the Warsaw Pact
- There must be only one-party system
He would not allow countries to reject Communism, even if it meant a third World War.

How did the Czechoslovakians respond to the invasion?

They peacefully protested. Protestors would stand in front of tanks and give flowers to the soldiers. A student called Jan Palach burned himself alive in protest.

Despite the Czechoslovakian’s efforts, the revolt was stamped down? Who was Dubcek replaced by and what did the new leader do?

Dubcek was replaced by Husak, who:
- Revoked or modified the laws made in “Prague Spring”
- Strengthened tied with the Warsaw Pact
- Increased police authority
- Re-centralised the economy

What was Germany like after WW2?

Germany was divided into 4 zones of occupation. Each was assigned to one of the Allied powers. Berlin was divided similarly. In April 1949, USA, Britain and French united their zones and formed West Germany.

What was the difference between West Germany and East Germany?

West Germany was capitalist, allied with the USA and very prosperous.
In October 1949, the Soviet zone became East Germany, a Soviet puppet state that was Communist and often faced food shortages and a lack of basic goods.

What was the “brain drain”?

Throughout the 50s, East Germans were relocating to the West, particularly those who were educated and highly skilled (like engineers, teachers and doctors). They were enticed by the prosperity of the capitalist society. This angered Khrushchev as it gave a bad impression of Soviet rule and East Germany couldn’t afford to lose the valuable workers.

How did Khrushchev respond to the migration of East Germans?

He made the Berlin Ultimatum in November 1958:
- Western troops should be removed from East Berlin.
- Berlin would become a free city (controlled by USSR)
- The West had 6 weeks before Khrushchev threatened to take over transport routes in East Germany.
The USA and USSR arranged a number of summits to tackle the issue but the USA were annoyed by Khrushchev’s demands - they were seen as another act of aggression

What happened in August 1961?

The Berlin Wall was constructed, dividing the East and the West. It was fortified with barbed wire, machine gun posts and watch towers.
East Berliners could not easily go to West Berlin without a permit.
Guards were stationed along the wall with orders to shoot anyone that tried to cross. (Over 180 were killed).
Despite this, the tensions between the USA and USSR eased, but it became a symbol of communist aggression and a reminder of the division between the East and West during the Cold War.

What were the negative consequences of the Berlin Wall for the USSR?

- Krushchev didn’t get what he wanted with the Ultimatum (he wanted full control of Berlin)
- The Wall was bad for the USSR’s reputation as it gave the impression that the USSR had to literally lock people in East Germany for them to stay, proving that capitalism was preferred.
- The British, French and US troops stayed in Berlin, which goes against the Ultimatum

What were the positive consequences of the Berlin Wall for the USSR?

- Stopped East Germans from leaving the USSR?
- The building of the Berlin Wall showed the USSR was not willing to give up Communist control
- Believed Khrushchev had shown his strength, gave him confidence to place missiles in Cuba

What were the negative consequences of the Berlin Wall for the USA?

- USSR was able to close the border without the USA’s permission, which made Kennedy look weak.
- With the Berlin Wall built, there was nothing Kennedy could do without starting nuclear war

What were the positive consequences of the Berlin Wall for the USA?

- USA poured even more money into West Berlin to make it look more prosperous. West Berlin was a symbol of freedom, which made for good propaganda.
- Kennedy gained a better reputation when he visited West Berlin in 1963.

Why did the Polish revolt?

In July 1980, the government was facing an economic crisis. It was raising the price of goods while not increasing wages, which increased the discontent amongst the public against the Communist Government.

What happened during the Solidarity uprising?

July 1980 - The government announced increases the price of meat
August 1980 - Workers in the Gdansk shipyard, led by Lech Walsea, went on strike and put forward 21 demands, including free trade unions and the right to strike. They also started a free trade union called Solidarity.
30th August 1980 - The government agreed to all 21 of Solidarity’s demands.
September 1980 - Solidarity’s membership increased by 3.5 million
October 1980 - Solidarity was recognised by the government. Membership was at 7 million
January 1981 - Membership was at 9.4 million, more than 1/3 of all workers in Poland.

What were some of Solidarity’s demands?

- Acceptance of free trade unions independent of the Communist Party and of enterprises
- A guarantee of the right to strike and of the security of the strikers and those aiding them
- A day of rest on Saturday
- A decrease in the waiting period for apartments
- A full supply of food products for the domestic market, with exports limited to surpluses.

Why was the movement successful?

- The union was strongest in those industries that were most important to the government. The union was also incredibly popular (over 10 million people from all aspects of Polish life joined) and even had support of the Catholic Church, which further devastated the economy
- In the early stages, the union was not seen by its members as an alternative to the Communist Party. Walsea was careful in his negotiations and worked to avoid provoking a dispute that would involve the USSR
- The government was playing for time. It hoped Solidarity would break up into rival factions. The government also drew up plans for martial law.

What happened following Solidarity’s success? (February 1981)

In February 1981, the civilian Prime Minister “resigned” and the leader of the army, General Jaruzelski took over. From the moment he took office, people in Poland, and observers outside Poland, expected the Soviet Union to “send in tanks”, especially when the Solidarity Congress produced an “open letter” saying that they were campaigning for their rights and the rights of workers throughout the Communist bloc.
Jaruzelski and Walsea negotiated to form a government of national understanding but when that broke down in December, the Communist government acted. Brezhnev ordered the Red Army to carry out “training manoeuvres” on the Polish border. Jaruzelski introduced martial law and he put Walsea and 10,000 other Solidarity leaders in prison. He suspended Solidarity.

Why was Solidarity crushed?

- Solidarity was acting as a political party: the government declared that there were secret tapes of a Solidarity meeting setting up a new provisional government - without the Communist Party.
- Poland was sinking into chaos: Almost all the Poles felt the impact of the food shortages. Rationing had been introduced in April 1981. Wages had increased less than inflation. Unemployment was rising.
- Solidarity itself was stumbling into chaos: There were many different factions. Some felt the only way to make progress was to push the Communists harder until they cracked from the pressure. Strikes were continuing long after the Solidarity leadership had ordered them to stop.

What was the impact of the USSR’s response?

- The Polish people no longer trusted the Communists leadership
- The only thing that kept the Communists in power was force or the threat of force backed by the USSR. When Jaruzelski used force, Solidarity was easily crushed. If military force wasn’t used, Communist control was very unstable.

What was the significance of Solidarity?

- It highlighted the failure of Communism to provide good living standards, undermining USSR’s claim that it was a system that benefitted ordinary people
- Highlighted inefficiency and corruption that came with being a Communist nation
- Showed that there were organisations which were capable of resisting a Communist government
- Showed that Communist governments could be threatened by “people power”

How did Solidarity return in the 80s?

November 1982 - Public outcry forced Walsea’ release but Solidarity remained illegal
1983 - Walsea was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize. He continued as leader of the now-underground Solidarity movement. Deteriorating economic circumstances brought new strikes which led to the government having no choice but to negotiate with Walsea.
March 1989 - Gorbachev told Eastern European nations that the Red Army wouldn’t protect them anymore. The general public knew that meant the USSR wouldn’t get involved if demonstrations were made.
April 1989 - Solidarity was legalised. And free elections were held in Poland, Solidarity won almost all the seats.

When Gorbachev became leader of the USSR in 1985, what problems were he faced with?

The USSR was in a terrible state.
- The economy was weak, and too much money was being spent on the arms race. It was locked in an unwinnable war with Afghanistan.
- The Soviet system meant there was no incentive to work because they couldn’t keep profits or earn higher wages. This meant that Soviet goods were often shoddy and infrastructure was often dangerous and outdated. Years of propaganda meant the citizens had no loyalty to the government.

What were the key ideas of Gorbachev’s reforms?

- Glasnost
- Perestroika
- Disarmament

What was Glasnost?

- Means “openness”
- Called for open debate on government policy and addressing problems
- Meant allowing more criticism of the Communist government, less censorship, reduction of power of the KGB, releasing of political prisoners.

What was Perestroika?

- Means “restructuring”
- Reduced state control over industry, allowed businesses to buy and sell for profit (the first time in 60 years)
- Called for introducing “market forces”

How did Gorbachev implement disarmament in his reforms?

- Began to cut defence spending
- Reduced the Red Army
- Held talks with the US President and took lead in cutting nuclear weapons
- Withdrew troops from Afghanistan
- Talked about international trust and cooperation as the way forward for the USSR, rather than confrontation

How did President Reagan play a part in the USSR leaving the arms race?

- Reagan was very anti-communist. He criticised control over Eastern Europe and increased military spending, including spending lots of money on a new “Star Wars” system of lasers that shoot ICBMs in space. (It never worked but the USSR didn’t know)
- It was clear by the 1980s that the USSR could not compete with US spending and they cut back. No new weapons were built, he withdrew from the Afghanistan war and in 1986 he cut back on nuclear weapons and announced that he was preparing to disarm.
- Gorbachev and Reagan got along well, which improved relations between the two nations and reduced the need for the USSR to have their buffer (Eastern Europe)

Where and when did Gorbachev and Reagan meet to disarm their nuclear weapons?

- Geneva 1985
- Reykjavik 1986
- Washington 1987
- Moscow 1988

After each meeting, nuclear weapons were reduced. Nearly all US and Soviet missiles were removed from Europe. This was known as “green light”.

What was the effect of Green Light?

It was a major factor in the collapse of Eastern Europe. It made more people willing to take risks as they knew that nuclear warfare isn’t going to be a consequence anymore. It also meant that the USSR were not so paranoid about keeping their buffer against the USA intact.

What else led to the collapse of Eastern Europe?

In July 1988, Gorbachev made a speech to the leaders of the Warsaw Pact. He planned to withdraw large numbers of troops, tanks and aircraft from Eastern Europe. Hungary was particularly eager to get rid of troops and Gorbachev accepted this. In March 1989 he made it clear that the Red Army would not intervene to prop up against Communist regimes in eastern Europe.

What was people power?

A phrase that explained what was happening in Eastern Europe. Communist control toppled due to the unification of the public, taking control of events. It was not political leaders guiding the future of Eastern Europe in 1989, but ordinary people

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Hungary?

May - Civilians began dismantling the barbed-wire fence between Hungary and non-Communist Hungary
December - The Communist Party in Hungary renames itself the Socialist Party and declares that free elections will be held in 1990.

Addiitonally, the parliament adopted a “democracy package”, which included trade union rights, personal freedoms, a less restricted press, more voting rights and an acknowledgement that the 1956 uprising was a popular movement, not a foreign insurgency.

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Poland?

June - Free elections are held for the first time since WW2. Solidarity wins almost all the seats. Eastern Europe gets its first non-Communist leader, Lech Walsea.

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Eastern Germany?

September - Thousands of East Germans on Holiday in Hungary and Czechoslovakia refuse to go home. They escape through Austria into West Germany.
October - There are enormous demonstrations in East Germany cities when Gorbachev visits. He tells Erich Honecker (East German leader) to reform. Honecker orders troops to fire on demonstrators but they refuse. Gorbachev tells Honecker he will not send Soviet tanks to support him.
November - Thousands East Germans march to the checkpoints at the Berlin Wall. Guards throw down their weapons and crowds dismantle the wall and pour into West Berlin for the first time since 1961.

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Czechoslovakia?

November - There are huge demonstrations in Czechoslovakia. The government opens its borders with the West and allows the formation of other parties.

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Romania?

December - A short but bloody revolution occurs and ends with Communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife to be executed.

What events in 1989 led to the collapse of Communism in Bulgaria?

December - Huge demonstrations against the government advocating for free speech.

What events in March 1990 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Gorbachev visits Lithuania. The leaders told Gorbachev they wanted independence. Gorbachev wouldn’t allow this because they weren’t a buffer country, they were part of the USSR.
As soon as he returned to Moscow, Gorbachev got a request for independence from Azerbaijan. He sent troops to Azerbaijan to end the rioting. He sent troops to Lithuania as well.

What events in May 1990 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Boris Yeltsin was elected as President of the Russian Republic. He made it clear that he saw no future in the Soviet Union and that all countries should be independent.

What events in July 1990 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Ukraine declared independence. Other republics followed.

Why did Gorbachev win a Nobel Peace Prize in October 1990?

Gorbachev’s contribution to the collapse of the USSR and improved global relations led to the end of the Cold War, which led to him being awarded the NPP

What events in April 1991 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Georgia declared independence.

What events in August 1991 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Hardline Communist Party members and leading military officers attempted a coup to take over the USSR. Some of these plotters included Prime Minister, Pavlov, and head of armed forces, Dmitry Yazov. They held Gorbachev prisoner in his holiday home in Crimea while they sent tanks and troops on the streets of Moscow.
Huge crows gathered in Moscow as a result. They strongly opposed to military coup. Yeltsin led the resistance and stood in front of tanks to stop them from storming the Russian parliament. The conspirators gave up and the coup collapsed.

What events in December 1991 lead to the collapse of E. Europe?

Gorbachev announced his resignation and the end of the USSR on Christmas Day 1991.

How did the war in Afghanistan contributed to the collapse of the USSR?

In what was originally an attempt to take control of the country, the Afghan militia, the Mujahideen, managed to engage the Soviets in what became a guerilla- style war in 1979. The war badly overstretched the Soviets’ economy and demoralised their military. The war led to widespread condemnation by other countries and pressure to withdraw.

How did the US contributed to the collapse of the USSR?