Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods

Vocabulary flashcards generated from Chapter 1 covering key historical figures, schools of thought, contemporary perspectives, research specialties, and research methods in psychology.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Interactive Dualism

René Descartes' idea that the mind and body are separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other conscious experiences.

Wilhelm Wundt

The founder of psychology who published Principles of Physiological Psychology in 1874 and established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology developed by Edward Titchener that involved introspection to study the basic components of conscious experiences.

Functionalism

An early school of psychology shaped by William James that focused on how behaviors function to allow people and animals to adapt to their environments.

G. Stanley Hall

A student of William James who established the first psychological laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University and founded the American Psychological Association (APA).

Mary Whiton Calkins

A student of William James who was elected as the first female president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first American woman to earn an official Ph.D. in psychology.

Francis C. Sumner

The first African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, awarded by Clark University in 1920.

Psychoanalysis

A personality theory and form of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of unconscious conflicts, sexual drives, and aggressive factors in personality and behavior.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology pioneered by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner that restricts itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors that can be measured and verified.

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow emphasizing conscious experiences, personal growth, self-direction, free will, and human potential.

Neuroscience

The study of physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior.

Positive Psychology Perspective

A psychological perspective based on Seligman and others that studies how to contribute to optimal functioning and counterbalance the traditional focus on problems and disorders.

Cognitive Perspective

A perspective focusing on mental processes, memory, perception, language, problem solving, and thinking, often using computers as a model for human mental processing.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others, and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures.

Individualistic Cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group.

Collectivistic Cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual.

Evolutionary Perspective

A perspective that applies principles of evolution to explain psychological processes, suggesting that adaptive characteristics are perpetuated through natural selection.

Clinical Psychologists

Professionals trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders who hold a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree.

Psychiatrists

Physicians holding medical degrees (M.D. or D.O.) with specialized training in psychological disorders who emphasize biological factors and utilize biomedical therapies.

Empirical Evidence

Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation.

Hypothesis

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question.

Variable

A factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured.

Statistics

A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing results from many research studies on a specific topic to identify overall trends.

Replicate

To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings.

Theory

A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations.

Descriptive Research Methods

Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method where researchers directly observe and record behavior in its natural environment rather than relying on subject descriptions.

Case Study

A highly detailed description of a single individual, generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions.

Survey

A research tool designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group, usually in self-report form.

Sample

A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied.

Representative Sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Random Selection

A selection process in which subjects are chosen randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included.

Correlational Study

A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables.

Independent Variable

The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable.

Dependent Variable

The factor observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable.

Extraneous Variable

A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment; also called a confounding variable.

Random Assignment

The procedure in which all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental groups or conditions.

Single-blind Study

An experimental study where researchers, but not the subjects, are aware of critical information.

Double-blind Technique

An experimental procedure in which both participants and researchers interacting with them are unaware of the treatment or condition assigned.

Demand Characteristics

Subtle cues or signals by the researcher that communicate the type of responses expected from participants.

Placebo Effect

Any change attributed to a person's beliefs and expectations rather than to an actual drug, treatment, or procedure; also called the expectancy effect.

Natural Experiment

A study in which researchers carefully observe and measure the impact of a naturally occurring event or condition on study participants.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A brain-imaging technique that detects increased blood flow by tracking the utilization of radioglucose.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

A brain-imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to detect metabolic activity in the nervous system and detail neural activity.