Chapter 01: Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology Vocabulary Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering the key terms, historical figures, research methods, biological hierarchy, feedback systems, and medical imaging techniques from Chapter 01.

Anatomy

The study of body structure.

Physiology

The study of body function.

Ways to examine structure of the human body

Inspection—look at appearance
Palpation—feeling a structure with the hands
Auscultation—listening to sounds produced by body
Percussion—tap on the body, feel for resistance, and listen to emitted
sound for abnormalities
Dissection—cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal
tissue relationships; use a cadaver, a dead human body
Comparative anatomy—study (for example, dissection) of multiple
species to learn about form, function, and evolution
Exploratory surgery—opening the living body to see what is wrong;
now replaced by medical imaging to view inside without surgery
Radiology—branch of medicine specializing in imaging

Inspection

Examining the structure of the human body by looking at its appearance.

Palpation

Feeling a body structure with the hands.

Auscultation

Listening to sounds produced by the body.

Percussion

Tapping on the body, feeling for resistance, and listening to emitted sound for abnormalities.

Dissection

Cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships.

Comparative Anatomy

The study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution.

Exploratory Surgery

Opening the living body to see what is wrong, now largely replaced by medical imaging.

Radiology

The branch of medicine specializing in imaging.

Subdisciplines of anatomy

gross anatomy, histology, histopathology, cytology. These subdisciplines examine anatomical structures at various scales, from macroscopic to microscopic levels.

Gross Anatomy

The study of body structures that can be seen with the naked eye.

Histology

The microscopic examination of tissues, also known as microscopic anatomy.

Histopathology

Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease.

Cytology

The study of the structure and function of cells.

Subdisciplines of physiology

neurophysiology, endocrinology, pathophysiology.

Neurophysiology

The subdiscipline of physiology concerned with the nervous system.

Endocrinology

The subdiscipline of physiology concerned with hormones.

Pathophysiology

The subdiscipline of physiology concerned with mechanisms of disease.

Comparative Physiology

The study of different species to learn about body functions, serving as a basis for understanding human physiology and drug development.

Hippocrates

Greek physician known as the Father of medicine who established the Hippocratic Oath and urged physicians to seek natural causes of disease.

Aristotle

Greek philosopher who distinguished supernatural causes of disease (theologi) from natural causes (physiologi) and believed complex structures were built from simpler parts AKA cell theory

Metrodora

Greek physician who was the first woman to publish a medical textbook.

Claudius Galen

Physician to Roman gladiators who performed animal dissections because cadavers were banned, whose teachings became European dogma in the Middle Ages.

He wrote The most influential medical textbook of the ancient era

Maimonides

Jewish physician (Moses ben Maimon) who wrote 10 medical texts and served as physician to Egyptian sultan Saladin.

Avicenna

Muslim scholar (Ibn Sina) known as The Galen of Islam who wrote The Canon of Medicine, used in medical schools for 500 years.

Andreas Vesalius

Anatomist who conducted his own human dissections and published the first atlas of anatomy, De Humani Corporis Fabrica, in 1543.

Known as "the father of modern anatomy," was the first to publish accurate drawings of the body.

William Harvey

Early physiologist who published De Motu Cordis in 1628 and discovered that blood circulates continuously from the heart and back to it.

Galileo

pattended the compound microscope as a by product of his work with telescopes. Tube with lenses at each end: ocular lens in the eyepience and objective lens near the specimen. He didn’t use it for biology.

Marcello Malpighi

• First to use compound microscope to study biological material
• Observed blood cells, capillaries, and capillary blood flow

Robert Hooke

Microscopist who improved the compound microscope, first saw and named cells, and published Micrographia in 1665.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Inventor of a simple single-lens microscope with 200X magnification who published observations of microorganisms and living cells.

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Biologists who concluded that all organisms were composed of cells, establishing the first tenet of cell theory.

cell theory

all structure and function result from the activty of cells. Cells are the building blocks of tissue.

Modern biomedical science advances

Germ theory of disease
Mechanisms of heredity
Structure of DNA
Advances in medical imaging
Disease imaging and treatment
Mapping of the human genome

Scientific Method

the process of performing science, including careful observation, logical thinking, and proper analysis of observations and conclusions. Science and scientific methods set standards for truth. This is the process where one makes an hyppthsis based on established research or theories, conducts an experiemnt to test the hypotehsis, makes observations of the experiments, and draws conclusions from the results of weather it supports or rejects the hypothesis.

Inductive Method

The process of making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions. Knowledge of anatomy is obtained by this method.

What is proof in science?

• Reliable observations, repeatedly confirmed
• Not falsified by any credible observation
• In science, all truth is tentative. Proof beyond a reasonable doubt. May abandon yesterday’s truth if tomorrow’s facts disprove it

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

The scientific method where an investigator formulates a testable hypothesis to answer a question, conducts an experiement to test the hypothesis, makes observations, draws conclusions. Most physiology knowledge is gained by this method.

Hypothesis

An educated speculation or possible answer to a question that is testable and falsifiable. Good hypotheses are consistent with what is already known.

Falsifiability

The requirement of a scientific claim that evidence can be specified that could prove it wrong.

Elements of experimental design

Sample size—number of subjects in a study
Controls—control group resembles treatment group but
does not receive treatment
Psychosomatic effects—effects of subject’s state of mind on
her or his physiology; tested by giving placebo to control group
Experimenter bias—avoided with double-blind method
Neither the subject nor experimenter knows if the subject is part of
control or treatment group
Statistical testing—use statistical tests to provides statement
of probability that treatment was effective

Psychosomatic Effects

Effects of a subject's state of mind on her or his physiology, controlled for using placebos.

Double-Blind Method

An experimental design where neither the subject nor the experimenter knows if the subject is part of the control or treatment group.

Peer Review

Critical evaluation of scientific work by other experts in the field prior to funding or publication. Done by using verification and repeatability of results. Ensures honesty, objectivity, and quality in science.

Scientific Fact

Information that can be independently verified.

Law of Nature

A generalization about the way matter and energy behave, resulting from inductive reasoning and repeated observations. Written as verbal statement or mathematical formula.

Scientific Theory

An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses that summarizes current knowledge and suggests future research directions.

Charles Darwin

Influential biologist who presented first well-supported theory of how evolution works. He came up with the theory of natrual selection.
• On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)—
‟the book that shook the world”
• The Descent of Man (1871)—human evolution and relationship to
other animals

Evolution

Change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms over time.

Natural Selection

The primary mechanism of evolution, driven by environmental selection pressures favoring the reproductive success of certain traits.

Selection Pressures

Forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others.

Adaptations

Inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to selection pressures and enable an organism to succeed.

Our basic primate adaptations

Early primates were arboreal (tree-dwelling)
• Mobile shoulders—better movement among branches
• Opposable thumbs and prehensile hands—grasp branches and
manipulate objects
• Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision—depth perception
• Color vision—find ripe fruit
• Large brain—memory allowing efficient food finding

A human is born before his/her nervous system has matured. This is traceable to __________.

skeletal adaptations to bipedalism.

Arboreal

Tree-dwellers

Prehensile hands

grasping appendages equipped with fingers that can wrap around objects, hold items, and climb

Stereoscopic vision

depth perception

Bipedalism

The ability to stand and walk on two legs.
• Helps spot predators; carry food, tools, infants
• Adaptation to living on savanna (grassland) as Africa
became hotter and drier
• Skeletal and muscular modifications
• Changes to family structure

Evolutionary histroy of humans

Australopithecus was a bipedal primate genus that lived
more than 3 million years ago

Homo genus appeared 2.5 million years ago. Taller, larger brain volume, tool-making

Homo erectus appeared 1.8 million years ago. Migrated from Africa to parts Asia

Homo sapiens originated in Africa 200,000 years ago

Evolutionary medicine traces some of our diseases to
differences between modern and prehistoric environments

The heirarchy of complexity of anatomy

Organism composed of organ systems
Organ systems composed of organs
Organs composed of tissues
Tissues composed of cells
Cells composed partly of organelles
Organelles composed of molecules
Molecules composed of atoms

Organism

A single, complete individual.

Organ System

A group of organs with a unique collective function.

Organ

A structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a function.

Tissue

An aggregation of similar cells and cell products forming a discrete region of an organ and performing a specific function.

Cell

The smallest unit of an organism that carries out all basic functions of life.

Organelle

A microscopic structure within a cell that carries out a specific function.

Molecule

particle composed of two or more atoms.

Atom

smallest particle with unique chemcial identity made of prontons, neutrons, and electrons.

Reductionism

The theory that large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components. Essential to scientific thinking, but some properties cannot be predicted from individual parts and can only be predicted through holism

Holism

The viewpoint that emergent properties occur as levels of organization ascend and cannot be predicted from individual parts alone.

Anatomical variation

No two humans are exactly alike; even identical twins have
differences
• Anatomy books show most common organization of
structures
• Some individuals lack certain muscles
• Some individuals have an atypical number of vertebrae
• Some individuals have an atypical number of certain
organs (for example, kidneys)
• Some individuals show situs inversus—left–right reversal
of organ placement

Situs Inversus

A condition in which the structural placement of internal organs is reversed left-to-right.

Physological variation. Reference Man and women

Physiology is even more variable than anatomy
• Variations in sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity,
genetics and environment.

A standardized physiological reference for men is defined as 22 years old, 154 lb, doing light physical activity, and consuming 2,800 kcal/day. Reference woman: same as man except 128 lb and 2,000 kcal/day

Failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication of elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on men

Characteristics of life

Life is a collection of properties that distinguish living from
nonliving things
Characteristics of life:
• Organization—living things exhibit a higher level of organization
than nonliving things
• Cellular composition—living matter is always compartmentalized
into one or more cells
• Metabolism—the sum of internal chemical change for energy
• Responsiveness (excitability)—ability to sense and react to
changes in environment (stimuli)
• Movement—movement of entire organism or of substances within
the organism
• Homeostasis—maintaining relatively stable internal conditions
• Development—change in form or function over time
• Differentiation—transformation of unspecialized cells into cells with a
committed task
• Growth—increase in size; occurs through chemical change
• Reproduction—organisms produce copies of themselves; pass
genes to offspring
• Evolution—genetic change from generation to generation; occurs
due to mutations (change in DNA structure). Observe evolution in population as a whole; a single organism does not
evolve over the course of its life

Homeostasis

The ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable range for internal conditions. Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death.

Negative Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism in which the body senses a change and negates or reverses it to maintain dynamic equilibrium around a set point.

Thermoregulation: homeostasis

If too warm, skin blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweating
begins (heat-losing mechanism) until the body returns to the homestatic range for temperature and then there are mechanisms that inhibit the feedback loop from continuing.

If too cold, skin blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) and
shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism) until the body returns to the homestatic range for temperature and then there are mechanisms that inhibit the feedback loop from continuing.

Baroreflex

Homeostasis of blood pressure:

Rise from bed, blood drains from head and blood pressure falls in
this region

Detected by baroreceptors that transmit signals to cardiac center of
brainstem

Cardiac center transmits signals to heart to increase heart rate,
raising blood pressure and restoring homeostasis.

Common components of a negative feedback loop

Receptor—structure that senses change in the body (for example,
the baroreceptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)
• Integrating (control) center—control center that processes the
sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response
(for example, cardiac center of the brainstem)
• Effector—cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to
restore homeostasis (for example, the heart)

Receptor

A component in a feedback loop that senses a change in the body.

Integrating (control) Center

A control center in a feedback loop that processes sensory information from receptors, makes a decision, and directs a response to the effector.

Effector

A cell or organ in a feedback loop that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis.

Positive Feedback

A self-amplifying physiological cycle where a change leads to even greater change in the same direction.

positive feedback examples

Examples: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and
generation of nerve signals

Positive feedback in childbirth

1.) head of fetus pushes against cervix

2.) nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to the brain

3.) brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin

4.) oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions that pushes fetus toward the cervix adn the cycle repeates. the result of the cycle actiovates the cycle again.

Gradient

A difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points.

Matter and energy tends to flow in which direction of the gradient?

Down a gradient from most to least.

flow in the opposite direction requires energy.

electrochemcial gradient

a combination of concertation gradient and electrical grandient.

The history of anatomical terminology

About 90% of our current medical terms come from 1,200 Greek
and Latin roots reflecting ancient past
The Renaissance brought progress but confusion
• Same structures named differently in varied countries
• Some structures named after people (eponyms)
In 1895, anatomists established worldwide naming conventions
• Rejected eponyms; used unique Latin names
Terminologia Anatomica (TA) provides standard international
anatomical terms
• Provided Latin names and English equivalents
• In 1998, approved by anatomists in over 50 countries

Eponyms

anatomical structures named after people. examples: fallopian tubes (uterine tubes), achilles tendon (calcaneal tendon), loop of hence (nephron loop).

Terminologia Anatomica (TA)

Provided Latin names and English equivalents. In 1998, approved by anatomists in over 50 countries. Provides standard international
anatomical terms

Building blocks of medical terms

Anatomical terminology based on word elements such as
roots, prefixes, suffixes
• Scientific terms
• One root (stem) with core meaning
• Combining vowels join roots into a word
• Prefix and/or suffix may modify meaning of root word

Plurals, Adjectives, and Possessive Forms

Plural forms of anatomical terms vary
• Examples: cortex vs cortices, corpus vs corpora
• Adjective often follows noun it modifies
• Example: Biceps brachii
• Adjectival form of a term can appear different than noun
form
• Example: brachium (n.) referring to the arm, vs. brachii (adj.)
referring to “of the arm”

Radiography

The process of using X-rays penetrating tissues to darken photographic film and visualize interior structures. Dense tissues like bones illuminate white under x-ray.

Digital substraction angiography

Radiopaque substances (Contrast dye) can be injected or swallowed to fill hollow structures, for example, blood vessels, intestinal
tract. This can reveal any blockages and will show blood flow.

Computed Tomography (CT) AKA CAT

An imaging technique using low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis to produce sharp, slice-type images of the body.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

An imaging technique using strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate high-quality soft tissue images without X-ray exposure.

Positron Emission Tomography

An imaging technique using radioactively labeled glucose to assess the metabolic state of tissue. Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment. Damaged tissues appear dark because tumors consume the most glucose. A positron is a positively charged electron, a subatomic particle that serves as the antimatter counterpart to the electron.