AP PSYCH 3.8 Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

a concept developed by B.F. Skinner, is a learning process

through which the strength of a behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment.

This form of conditioning relies on the association between a behavior and its

consequence, which can either increase or decrease the likelihood of the behavior being

repeated.

Law of Effect

proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that behaviors followed by

satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by

unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement

is any event that strengthens or increases the frequency of a

behavior. There are two types: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement

This involves presenting a pleasant stimulus after a

behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A manager

praises an employee for meeting a sales target, which motivates the employee to

continue performing well.

Negative Reinforcement

This involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a

behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A student

studies diligently to avoid parental disapproval, thereby increasing their studying

behavior.

Punishment

is any event that weakens or decreases the frequency of a behavior.

There are two types: positive punishment and negative punishment.

Positive Punishment

This involves presenting an unpleasant stimulus after a

behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A child is

given extra chores for breaking curfew, which decreases the likelihood of the child

breaking curfew in the future.

Negative Punishment

This involves removing a pleasant stimulus after a

behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. A teenager's

video game privileges are taken away for failing to do chores, reducing the

likelihood of neglecting chores in the future.

Reinforcement Discrimination

in operant conditioning refers to the ability to

distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately. An organism learns to

respond to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli. This is achieved through

differential reinforcement, where only the desired behavior in the presence of a

particular stimulus is reinforced. A student learns to raise their hand before speaking in

class when the teacher is present but not when interacting with peers during recess,

demonstrating the ability to discriminate between different social contexts.

Generalization

is the tendency for a learned behavior to occur in response to stimuli

that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. This process helps organisms apply

learned behaviors to new but similar situations, enhancing adaptability. A child who is

praised for saying "please" and "thank you" at home begins to use these polite phrases

in other social settings, such as at school or with friends, demonstrating generalization of

courteous behavior.

Shaping

is a method used in operant conditioning where successive approximations of

a desired behavior are reinforced. Instead of waiting for the subject to exhibit the exact

target behavior, behaviors that are progressively closer to the desired behavior are

rewarded until the target behavior is achieved. In animal training, a dog trainer might

use shaping to teach a dog to fetch a ball. Initially, the dog is rewarded for looking at the

ball, then for moving towards it, then for touching it, and finally for picking it up and

bringing it back. Each step is reinforced until the complete behavior is performed reliably.

Instinctive Drift

refers to the tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors

that interfere with a conditioned response. Despite reinforcement, natural behaviors can

sometimes override learned behaviors. In a classic experiment by Keller and Marian

Breland, raccoons were trained to deposit coins into a piggy bank. However, over time,

the raccoons began to revert to their instinctive behavior of rubbing the coins together,

similar to how they would handle food. Despite reinforcement, their natural tendencies

overrode the conditioned behavior.

Superstitious Behavior

in the context of operant conditioning occurs when an

individual associates a behavior with a consequence that is not causally related, due to

coincidental reinforcement. This type of behavior was famously demonstrated by B.F.

Skinner in his experiments with pigeons, where the birds developed peculiar actions (like

turning in circles) thinking these actions caused food to be delivered. An athlete might

wear a "lucky" item of clothing during games, believing it influences their performance.

Despite no actual causal link, the item becomes associated with successful outcomes,

reinforcing the behavior.

Learned Helplessness

occurs when an individual is exposed to uncontrollable and

aversive events, leading to a perception of powerlessness and subsequent failure to act

even when opportunities to avoid the aversive stimuli are available. This concept was

introduced by Martin Seligman through experiments with dogs that were exposed to

inescapable shocks. In educational settings, students who repeatedly experience failure

despite their efforts may develop a sense of helplessness, resulting in decreased

academic performance and reluctance to engage in future learning opportunities.

Aversive Consequences

involve the use of negative stimuli to decrease the likelihood

of a behavior recurring. This can include punishments or negative reinforcement

(removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior). In the workplace, a manager

might use reprimands or demotions to discourage tardiness. While this may reduce

lateness, it could also create a hostile work environment, affecting employee morale and

productivity.

Schedules of Reinforcement

refer to the timing and pattern of delivering

reinforcements after a desired behavior. There are two main types: Continuous

Reinforcement and Partial Reinforcement.

Scalloped Graph

is a characteristic pattern of responding that occurs when behavior

is reinforced on a fixed interval schedule. It shows a gradual increase in responding as

the time for reinforcement approaches, followed by a rapid decline after reinforcement is

delivered.

Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, every occurrence of the

desired behavior is reinforced. This schedule is effective for initial learning but can lead

to rapid extinction (disappearance of the behavior when reinforcement stops).

Partial Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, only some occurrences of the desired

behavior are reinforced. This can be based on several schedules: Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of

responses (e.g., every 5th response).

Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable

number of responses, varying around an average (e.g., on average every

5th response).

Fixed Interval (FI)

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response after

a fixed time interval (e.g., every 2 minutes).

Variable Interval (VI)

Reinforcement is delivered for the first response

after an unpredictable time interval, varying around an average (e.g., on

average every 2 minutes).