AP Psychology - Cognition - Unit 2.1, 2.2, & 2.8

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and event

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information (sensation first)

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations (experience first)

Selective Attention

Focusing our conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Cocktail-Party Effect

The ability to focus one's attention a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli (i.e., noise).

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is focused elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Perceptual Set

 A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the background)

Proximity

Group objects that are close together as being part of same group

Similarity

Objects similar in appearance are perceived as being part of same group

Continuity

Objects that form a continuous shape are perceived as same group

Connectedness

Elements tend to be grouped together if they are connected by other elements and viewed as a single unit

Closure

Like top-down processing, we fill gaps in if we can recognize it

Gestalt

People who are given a cluster of sensations tend to organize them into this

Schemas

A concept of framework that organizes interprets information based on experiences

Attention

Focusing of specific stimuli

Inattention

The failure to notice something due to divided focus

Depth Perception

Two-dimensional objects falling on our retinas, we somehow organize three-dimensional perceptions that allow us to estimate that object’s distance from us

Visual Cliff

Experiments for depth perception; Infants were coaxed to cross what appeared to be drop, most of whom refused to do so, indicating that they understood depth.

Binocular Cues

Depth cues that depends on two eyes

Convergence

Rotation of eyes so that the image can be projected on each retina

• Close objects cause eyes to pull inwards 

• Far objects cause eyes to pull outwards

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the retinal images from each eye and computing the distance between the two images - the greater the difference between each image, the closer the object is.

Monocular Cue

A depth cue that is available to each eye separately:

• Linear Perspective

• Interposition

• Relative Size

• Relative Clarity

• Texture gradient

Relative Clarity

Because more light passes through objects that are farther away, we perceive these objects as hazy, blurry, or unclear nearby objects, by contrast, appear sharp and clear.

Relative Size

If we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive that one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away.

Texture Gradient

Moving toward or away from an object changes our perception of its smoothness or texture. When a wall is viewed from a distance we will perceive it as smooth. Viewing the same wall up close will reveal greater texture and detail.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance. The shaper the image of convergence. the greater the perceived distance is.

Interposition

If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

Stroboscopic Movement

A rapid series of slightly varying images perceived as moving images (flip book, “old” movies), OR when things in motion appear motionless

Phi Phenomenon

Illusion of movement created when two or more lights next to each other blink on and off

Autokinetic Effect

Perceptual phenomenon where a stationary point of light appears to move in a dark environment due to small eye movements

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change.

Perceptual Adaptation

In the event your perception is altered for any reason, your brain will work to overcome this shift using previous memories so you can continue to function normally.

Apparent Movement

a visual Illusion where two stimuli presented rapidly in sequence, but in slightly different locations, are perceived as a single object moving between the points

Color Constancy

The perceptual ability to see familiar objects as having the same color under different lighting conditions (illumination), even though the wavelengths of light reaching our eyes change, allowing us to perceive a stable world

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concepts

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category which provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories and can help organize unfamiliar items by finding an appropriate category

Schemas

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information based on experiences.

Assimilation

The process of when you encounter a new animal, you try to find a place for it in your existing schema

Accommodation

If you can’t do assimilation you alter your schema to include the new information using this process

Creativity

The ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. Though we can understand what creativity is, it is difficult to teach or measure. 

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions

Convergent Thinking

Narrows down the solutions to the single best option

Functional Fixedness

The inability to recognize novel uses for an item and only see it for its most common purpose

Executive Functions

Mental skills that help us learn, work, and manage daily life, including working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently, but does not guarantee a solution

Insight

A sudden flash of understanding when we think about a problem, often when no problem-solving strategy seems to be at work at all

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental Set

Tendency to persist in using the same problem- solving strategy or mindset that has worked in the past

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought; gut instinct

Representative Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events in reference to how closely they resemble a particular prototype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how readily they come to mind

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The phenomenon whereby a person is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because they have invested heavily in it, even when it is clear that abandonment would be more beneficial.

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

The way an issue is presented or worded can impact how people respond

Gambler’s Fallacy

A cognitive bias that adheres to the ideas that if something hasn’t happened recently it soon will because it’s “due”

Priming

A subconscious memory effect where exposure to one stimulus (like a word, image, or experience) makes it easier or faster to process or respond to a related stimulus later, influencing thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors without conscious awareness, often by activating related concepts in our memory networks

Nudge

A subtle change in the "choice architecture" or environment that steers people toward better decisions without forcing them or removing options, leveraging behavioral insights like defaults, framing, and reminders to encourage positive actions

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

General Intelligence (g)

Includes all mental abilites stemming from the work done on factor analysis

Factor Analysis

A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test and uses them to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.

Multiple Intelligence

Proposed after individuals who demonstrate increased performance in one area but not others

Gf - Fluid Intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, as when solving logic problems

Gc - Crystallized Intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge, as reflected in vocabulary and applied skills

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

G can be broken down further into 2 factors

Emotional Intelligence

People who are both socially aware and self-aware based on their abilities connected to:

• Perceiving emotions

• Understanding emotions

• Managing emotions

• Using emotions

Savant Syndrome

A rare condition where a person with a significant mental disability or developmental disorder, like autism spectrum disorder (ASD), has an exceptional skill in a specific, limited area, such as music, art, or mathematics

Grit

Passion and perseverance for long-term goals, involving sustained effort, interest, and resilience to overcome challenges and setbacks without giving up

Achievement Tests

Measure mastery of knowledge, assessing what someone has learned. → Finals & AP Exams measure what you have learned in class

Aptitude Tests

Designed to predict a person’s future performance or capacity to learn. → SAT & ACT scores predict how you will do in college

Psychometrics

 The field focused on scientifically measuring intelligence (and other traits) through the construction and use of valid and reliable tests

Standardization

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Test-Retest Reliability

Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.

Split-Half Reliability

Dividing the test into two parts, testing each part on the same students but on different days, and comparing scores, or testing odd and even numbers on different students to compare results.

Construct Validity

The ability of a measurement tool (survey, test, etc.) to measure the concept being studied.

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; assessed by computing correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

Flynn Effect

The finding that the average human IQ has increased over time, which was first discovered by researcher James Flynn in 1984, thus IQ tests must constantly be renormed so cohorts from different time periods can be compared.

Mental Age

The level of performance typical of children of a certain chronological age.

Chronological Age

How old the person actually is

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

This new test allowed children of different ages to be compared because the score was based on an intelligence quotient or IQ

IQ

(Mental age/chronological age)* 100

Normal Curve

The bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes; most scores fall near the average and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Stereotype Threat

A self-confirming concern that contributes to members of a stereotyped group performing less well on a task.

Stereotype Lift

A performance boost for members of a non-stereotyped group when they compare themselves to a stereotyped group

Growth Mindset

You believe your intelligence and talents can be developed over time

Fixed Mindset

Means that you believe intelligence is fixed—so if you’re not good at something, you might believe you’ll never be good at it.

Valid

Accurately measures what it is designed to measure.

Reliable

When it yields consistent results; to establish reliability researchers establish different procedures.

Content Validity

The extent to which a test adequately represents all aspects of the subject matter it's designed to measure

Cross-Sectional Study

An observational research method that collects data from a diverse group (like different ages, backgrounds) at a single moment in time, acting as a "snapshot" to see how variables (like attitudes, development, or prevalence of traits) differ across these groups, revealing correlations without tracking individuals over time, making it quick and cost-effective for seeing age-related patterns.

Longitudinal Study

A research method where the same group of people (a cohort or sample) is observed and measured repeatedly over an extended period (months, years, or decades) to track changes in their behaviors, traits, or development, revealing patterns and potential causes over time.

Cohort

A group of people sharing a common characteristic, typically born or experiencing a significant event (like graduating, serving in a war, or facing a cultural shift) around the same time.