Psychology Exam 1 Review

Structuralism

Created by Wilhem Wundt: understanding the structure of the mind through introspection (where someone examines their own behaviors and thoughts and experiences and breaks it into parts)

Functionalism

created by william james: focused on the functionality of congnitive prcoesses.

• examines thoughts and behaviors by how they serve to help someone survive in their environment

psychoanalytic theory

by sigmund freud: focuses on early childhood experiences and the unconcious and their role in how they shape an individual’s mind.

Thought that dream analysis was the way into someone’s mind

Gestalt psychology

by Koffka, kholer and wetheimer. State that the unified whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Behaviorism

Pavlov: classical conditioning (leveraging instinctual response)

watson: used conditioning to shape behavior (little albert experiement)

skinner: operant conditioning (behavior influenced by consequences) designed as positve (reinforcement) or negative (punishment)

Humanism

Abraham Masglow: when you have your basic needs, higher level needs like social belonging motivate behavior

Carl Rodgers: belvies that people are naturally inclined to be good and emphasizes free will and the ability for personal growth (encourages positve reinforcement and believes that that is better for people to grow)

Cognitive Revolution

Response to strict behaviorism (which was when researchers were strictly focused on outward behaviors) so there was a shift towards examining the influence of thoughts and mental processes on behavior (more internal).

Also led to a shift to neuroscience combined with psychology which linked the mental processes to activities in the nervous system and the brain

Biopsycholog

This branch of psychology focuses on how

biology influences behavior.

• How do brain changes and brain

structures impact behavior?

Developmental Psychology

• The study of development across the lifespan

• Generally focuses on early development in babies/toddlers

Cognitive Psychology

focus on mental processes and how they are used to problem solve, their role in memory, language, attention motivation and perception

Clincal Psychology

Focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

Industrial Psychology

study issues related to personnel management, organizaital structures and workplace environement

Personality psychology

delves into how an individual’s patterns of thoughts and behaviors make them unique.

personality traits: quantifiable way to research personality

Social psychology

how do we interact and relate with others? how do these interactions shape our behavior?

scientific method

theory: well developed set of ideas that propose on explanation for an observed phenoma

hypothesis: testable statement

falsifiablity

testable theory, must be able to be proven that it’s not true to be considered genuinely scientific

experimental group

group that experiences the manipulated variable

control group

participatns that don’t experience the manipulated variable (basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that may influence the study)

random assignment

all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

without this the experiment cannot find a true cause and effect relationship

experimenter bias

when the researcher’s expectations skew the results of the experiement

participant bias

participants expectations skew the results

single blind study

research knows which participants are in each group but participants do not (controls)

double blind study

both researcher and participants are blind to group assignments (controls for both)

placebo effect

people’s expectations or beliefs influencing their experience in a given situation

independent variable

is controlled by experiementer

dependent variable

the variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

clinical/case studies

focus on one individual. the studied individual is typically in an extreme or unique circumstance that differentiates them from the general public (so cannot be generalized)

naturalistic observation

observation of behavior in its natural setting. best to study the most accurate and genuine behaviors and helps eliminate any feeling of performance anxiety

disadvantages: observer bias and hard to have controls in natural environment

surveys

list of questions that can be delivered in many ways

population

entire group that the researcher is interested in

sample

subset of individuals representative of a larger population

archival research

uses past records or data sets to answer many questions or research for interesting patterns or relationship s

cross sectional research

compares multiple segements of a population at a single time

longitudinal research

studies in which the same group of individuals is surveyed or measured repeatedly over a long period of time

correlation

relationship between two variables such that when one changes the other does proportionally

correlation coefficient

number from -1 to 1 indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables is usually represented by ‘r’

cause and effect

change in one variable CAUSES a change in the other variable

confounding variable

unanticipated factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable

illusory correlations

seeing relationships between two things when it doesn’t really exist

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

reliability vs. validity

RELIABILITY: consistency and reproducibility of a given result

VALIDITY: accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to measure

a valid measure is always reliable but a reliable measure is NOT always valid

ethics

institutional review board

informed consent

inter-rater reliability

degree of consistency between two independent observers when evaluating the same phenomenon or behavior

genes

play a role in physical and visible characteristics

• genotype: person’s genetic makeup

• phenotype: person’s observable characteristics

neurons

• interconnected information processors

• revive and send messages between the brain and the body

glial cells (glia)

provide support to neurons (1:1 ratio)

dendrites

branch like extensions with receptors that detect information from the other neurons

soma (cell body)

the part of the neuron where information from other neurons is collected and integrated

axon

the long narrow outgrowth of a neuron that enables it to transmit information to the other neurons (end with terminal buttons called axon terminal)

synapse

the site of communication between neurons through neurotransmitters

• synaptic cleft: small gap between the axon terminal of the sending cell and the dendrite of the receiving cell where neurotransmitter is released

  • this neurotransmitter release results in changes in the receiving cell, allowing the signal to be propagated along to the next cell

action potential

neural impulse that travels along the axon- ending in the release of neurotransmitter into the synapse

• Threshold of Excitation: level of charge in the membrane that causes neurons to become active (if the charge reaches this level the action potential will occur)

• depolarization: membrane potential becomes less negative which makes the neuron more likely to fire (excitation)

• hyperpolarization: membrane potential becomes more negative which makes the neuron less likely to fire (inhibition)

myelin sheath

allows for the signal being sent from the axon to travel faster by insulating the axon

it also has gaps in it called ‘nodes of ranvier’ and the action potential essentially ‘hops’

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers of the nervous system! (used by neurons to talk to the next cell)

• receptors are specialized sites that specifically respond to certain types of neurotransmitters

reuptake

involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon termal from which it was released

Peripheral Nervous System

in this system the nerves transmit info b/w the central nervous system and muscles and organs and glands

• Somatic Nervous System: associated with voluntary action!

  • motor neurons: carry info from the CNS to the muscles

  • sensory neurons: carry info from the muscle to the CNS

• Autonomic Nervous System: associated with automatic or involuntary actions

  • sympathetic n.s: preparing the body for stressful events or activities

  • parasympathetic n.s: returing the body to routine function. resets and restores the body. important in maintaining homeostasis

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

Brain

• comprised of billions of interconnected neurons and glia

• bilateral (two sided)

• can be separated into distinct lobes but all of them interact with each other

Spinal cord

• delivers messages to and from the brain

• the top merges with the brainstem and the bottom ends just below the ribs

• has its own system of reflexes

Lateralization

each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions

• left hemisphere controls the right side and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body

• surface of the brain is covered with gyri and sulci

cerebral cortex

outer layer of the brain divided into five lobes critical for higher order processes

Forebrain

largest section of the brain

divided into the right and left hemisphere

each hemisphere has 4 lobes: occipital, parietal, temporal, and frontal

Frontal Lobe

region of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain

• important for complex processes (rational thought, attention and social process)

• Motor cortex: strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement

• Prefrontal cortex: important for higher level cognitive functioning (decision making, emotional control)

• Broca’s area” region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production

Parietal lobe

involved in processing sensory and perceptual information

important for sense of TOUCH and for picturing the layout of spaces in an environment

occipital lobe

associated with visual processing and contains the priamry visual cortex which helps interpret incoming visual information

temporal lobe

located on the side of the head (near the temples), important for hearing and processing auditory info and perceiving objects + faces

• auditory cortex: involved in processing auditory info

• Wernicke’s area: important for speech comprehension. Damage to this area results in difficulty understanding language)

Thalamus

(subcortical forebrain structure)

serves as the ‘relay center’ of the brain where most senses are routed before being directed to other areas of the brain for processing

hypothalamus

(subcortical forebrain structure)

important in regulation body functions like temperature, hunger, sleep and thirst

hippocampus

(subcortical forebrain structure)

associated with memory roles in memory formation, consolidation and organization

amygdala

(subcortical forebrain structure)

serves as a vital role in processing emotional information and learning to associate things with emotional responses

corpus callosum

(subcortical forebrain structure)

connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain facilitating communication between them

Midbrain

reflexive movement of the eyes and body (integrate movement with sensory input and plays a role in reward related behavior)

Hindbrain

located at the base of the skull

medulla

(part of the hindbrain) controlls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure and heart rate

pons

(part of hindbrain) connects the brain and spinal cord, involved in regulating brain activity during sleep

cerebellum (aka little brain)

(also part of the hindbrain) historically has been considered central to movement and balance— recently shows it is much more broadly involved in brain fuctions

how do we study development?

• normative approach

  • what is normal development?

• developmental milestones

  • specific developmental events that occur within an approx age range

Cognitive Theory of Development (Piaget)

• Development centered around thinking abilities

• COgnitive abilities develop through stages (need to finish one before moving on to the next)

• children learn to schema, which are modified through assimilation and accommodation

Infancy

sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) learning through senses and motor behavior

developmental milestone (8-12 months) concept of object permenance

Preoperational (2-7 years)

• language development

• can understand symbols to represent words, images and ideas

• thinking is egocentric

Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

logical thinking

decreased ego centrism and understanding of conservation and reversibility

Formal Operational (12+ years)

can think logically and handle abstract ideas and hypothetical situations

• cognitive empathy (theory of mind): the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for them

cognitive development in Adulthood

cognitive abilties remain steady throughout early and middle childhood

• crystallized intelligence: info, skills and strategies gathered through experience remains steady or improves

• fluid intelligence: info processing, reasoning and memory beings to decline

Psychological Theory

interactions with others are what shape our sense of self (ego identity)

• 8 stages of development must be overcome)

STAGE 1: Social development in Infancy

developing trust with their caregiver facilitates feeling secure and safe in the world

Attachment: security of attachment in childhood can influence relationships in adulthood

• secure

• avoidant

• anxious

• disorganized

STAGE 2: Early Childhood (1-3 years)

• developing a sense of SELF CONTROL

• expolration of environment + independence

• beginning development of self-concept

• ability to handle challenges

• autonomy vs. shame and doubt

STAGE 3: Childhood (preschool 3-6 years)

• imagination, planning and trying new things

• exploration valued over perfection builds positive self-concept

• initiative vs. guilt

STAGE 4: Childhood (school 7-11 years)

• acquire new skills and build confidence

• support develops competency, confidence in skills and cooperation with others

• industry vs. inferiority

STAGE 5: Adolescence (12-18 years)

• exploring independence and sense of self

• refine sense of self as they relate to others (who am i or who do i want to be)

• identity vs. role confusion

STAGE 6: Early Adulthood (19-29 years)

• forming close connections

• identity exploration is focused on work and love

• intamacy vs. isolation

STAGE 7: Middle Adulthood

• create and nurture things that outlast oneself

• make your “mark” on the world

• generativity vs. stagnation

STAGE 8: Maturity

• reflecting on life with fulfilment and wisdom

• satisfaction and acceptance or regret?

• ego integrity vs. despair

Authoritative Style (parenting)

best outcome of parent/child relationship (gentle parenting) setting healthy boundaries

Authoritarian style

focus on obedience. punishment over discipline (more of a do it because I said so type thing)

Permissive Style

don’t really enforce any rules, trying to be the ‘cool’ parent and being friends with their kid

Uninvolved Style

provide little guidance, nurturing or attention (neglectful)

Temperment

innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment

• easy temperment: positive emotions, adapt easily to change, capable of regulating emotions (more likely to illicit warm parenting)

• difficult temperment: negative emotions, difficulty adapting and regulating emotions (more likely to evoke irritation and result in parents withdrawing)

Moral Theory of Development

theory the moral development (discerning right from wrong) also follows a series of stages:

1. preconventional: controlled by external authority figures

2. conventional: internalize the expectations of society and the law

3. postconventional: defined by self chose and ethical principles

Psychosexual Theory of Development

focus on childhood experience and the unconscious

5 stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

• the pleasure-seeking urges of each stage are focused on a different area of the body called erogenous zones

• lack of parenting or nurturing would result in fixation within a given stage