Geography - Environmental

Evidence for Climate Change

• Sea-floor sediments - Indicate previous ocean temperatures

• Ice Cores - CO2 Levels have fluctuated - Indicate previous gaseous composition of the atmoshphere

• Lake Sediments - Pollen grains indicating the vegetation types from the past

• Tree rings - the width of the annules vary depending on the temperature

• Fossils - Indicates the plants and animals that were able to survive in the conditions

• Glacial and Inter-Glacial periods - we have not entered one

Human Causes for Climate Change

• Fossil Fuels - releases CO2 from the lithosphere into the atmosphere

• Agriculture - cattle farming releasing methane

• Deforestation - releasing CO2 from the biosphere into the atmosphere

Natural Causes for Climate Change

• Solar output - measured using sunspots

• Orbital changes - the ellipse of the earth’s orbit changes, so does the angle of the axis and it wobbles

• Volcanic activity - emit clouds of dust and gas that reflect the short waves from the sun back out of the atmosphere, cooling the planet

Global Circulation System (tri-cellular model)

Low Pressure Hazards and Formation

Tropical storms (Hurricane):

• A strong upward movement of air draws water vapour up from the warm ocean surface

• This evaporated air cools as it rises and condenses to form towering thunderstorm clouds

• As the air condenses it releases heat which powers the storm and draws up more and more water from the ocean

• Several small thunderstorms join to form a giant spinning storm

• As the storm is carried across the ocean by the prevailing winds it continues to gather strength

• The storm now develops an eye at its centre where air descends rapidly

• On reaching land the storm’s energy supply is cut off and friction with the land slows it down

High Pressure Hazards and Causes

Droughts and Heat Waves:

• Weather

• Global Warming

• El Nino

• Overpopulation

• Overcultivation

• Overextraction

• Deforestation

Distribution of: Low Pressure Storms

• Found over warm oceans (27 degrees +) - the tropics

• Form 5-15 degrees north and south of the equator as there is not enough ‘spin’ at the equator

• The intense heat in tropical climates makes the air unstable causing air to rise rapidly

Distribution of: High Pressure Systems

Higher risk in:

• LICs

• Places with overpopulation

• Places with hotter climates

Change overtime of: Low Pressure Systems

Form in the summer and autumn when sea temperatures are at their highest

Increased due to climate change

Change overtime of: High Pressure Systems

Increase in drought in the last 100 years due to climate change

Low Pressure System Case Study

What: Hurricane Matthew

Where: Caribbean, SE Coast of USA

When: October 2016

Consequences: Homelessness, Displacement, Separation of families, Death, Flooding, Destruction of property, Contaminated water (LICs),

Responses: Evacuation, Money donation from other countries and NGOs, Donation of resources from this places (LICs)

High Pressure System Case Study

What: California’s Drought and Wildfires

Where: California

When: 2012-2015

Causes: Jet stream that usually brings precipitation to California was too high up

Consequences: Lower precipitation → dry soils → wildfires, fires engulfed many homes, housed pipe bans, property damage, loss of crops, vegetation dies

Responses: Mass Evacuation

Factors that create Weather Variation in the UK

• Latitude

• Altitude (+ relief rainfall)

• Ocean Currents - North Atlantic Drift (warm)

• Continentality - land heats up and cools down quickly whereas water does so slowly

• Air Masses

Distribution of Biomes (Tropical Rainforests, Tundra and Savanna)

Tropical Rainforests: Grow in a band around the equator where the equatorial climate is hot and wet.

Tundra: Found where Winters are cold and Summers are short (arctic areas)

Savanna: Found in regions that have a tropical semi-arid climate (above and below the equator)

Tropical Rainforests (Climate and Distinctive Features)

Climate: Hot and wet - humid

Distinctive Features: Hot climate and abundant rainfall allow for rapid plant growth and trees that can reach very high heights

Savannas (Climate and Distinctive Features)

Climate: Hot with wet and dry seasons

Distinctive Features: An open tree canopy (i.e., scattered trees) above a continuous tall grass understory

How humans impact the ecosystems of: Tropical Rainforests

Deforestation:

• Exposes soil to erosion

• Takes carbon dioxide out of the biosphere and then lithosphere contributing to global warming

• Creates ecological islands - separating groups of animals from others

• Nutrient cycles are broken

• The use of heavy machinery damages shrubs → derives insects of food → disrupts the food chain

How humans impact the ecosystems of: Savanna

Desertification:

• Slash and burn of trees → reduces evapotranspiration levels → reduces rainfall levels → reduces water for people who rely on rivers for water

• The removal of vegetation → leaf litter can no longer fall into the soil → the nutrient cycle is broken → shrubs no longer replace nutrients or help to maintain a healthy soil structure by adding organic material to the soil

• The destruction of the tree canopy → exposes the soil to rain splash erosion + during heavy rainfall the water flows over the surface of the ground in sheets, eroding all the organic material from the upper layers of the soil. On steeper slopes the power of the water picks up and carries soil particles and smaller rocks → it uses these to erode downwards into the soil in a process known as gulley erosion.

Sustainable Management of: Tropical Rainforests

• Wildlife corridors - planting strips of forest to connect the remaining fragments of forest together. Allows animals to move freely from one area of forest to another without coming into conflict with people.

• Buffer zones - encourages the local people to use the zone sustainably rather than just banning the usage of forests altogether - helps to make a living and educate people

Sustainable Management of: Savannas

Great Green Wall of Africa - involves planting a wall of native trees and shrubs across the width of Africa:

• Increase biodiversity

• Reduce soil erosion

• Reduce time women spend collecting firewood

• Grow medicinal plants

• Diversify plant incomes

• Improve soil fertility

• Increase fodder for livestock

• Provide shade for crops and increase their yield

• Increase capability of coping with climate change

How humans affect small scale ecosystems in the UK: Studland Bay Sand Dunes

BBQs - Burns vegetation

Dog waste - fertilises the soil so unwanted plants also grow

Walking - tramples vegetation and kills it

Can be managed by: Land-use zoning, dog waste bins

Weather

Day to day conditions/changes in the atmosphere

Climate

Weather over a long period of time (30 years)

Affect of: Latitude on Temperature

Temperature: Greater curvature = Greater area of land to heat up

Affect of: Altitude on Temperature and Rainfall

Temperature: Density decreases as altitude increases.

Rainfall: Air is forced to rise over areas of high altitude causing relief rainfall

Affect of: Ocean Currents on Temperature and Rainfall

Temperature: Warm and cold ocean currents bring different temperatures

Rainfall: Brings in different pressure systems

Anticyclones

• High pressure

• Air sinks in the lower atmosphere

• In the Summer: brings hot and sunny weather with light wind

• In the Winter: Anticyclones cause cold weather including fog and frost

Depressions

• Low Pressure

• When a warm front meets a cold front

• Air rising causes the formation of clouds, which brings rainfall. Depressions often move eastwards across the UK, bringing changeable weather as they travel.

• There are usually frontal systems associated with depressions. The diagram below shows the changing weather that the warm and cold fronts bring as they move towards the east.

Urban micro-climates

The buildings and traffic in a large city influence the local climate - creates temperatures that are warmer than in the surrounding rural area.

Factors of: Urban micro-climates

• Concrete, brick and tarmac all absorb heat from the Sun during the day. This heat is then radiated into the atmosphere during the evening and at night.

• Buildings that are badly insulated lose heat energy, especially through roofs and windows. Heat is also created by cars and factories, which is lost to the air from exhausts and chimneys.

• Tall buildings in a city affect local patterns of wind - act as a shelter so average wind speeds in cities are lower than in the surrounding countryside. However, rows of tall buildings can also funnel the wind into the canyon-like streets between them and cause high wind speeds. This may cause hazards for pedestrians and, in some extreme weather conditions, has led to the collapse of scaffolding.

• During the summer months, the extra heat due to the urban heat island causes air to rise over larger cities - this can lead to convectional rainstorms.

• Urban areas have 10 times the dust particles in the atmosphere than rural areas leading to higher amounts of rainfall - when water vapour condenses in the air to form water droplets it does so by attaching itself to a dust particle.

How has water demand changed over the past 50-100 years?

Increased in all usages and all areas due to:

• industrialisation

• rise in population

• cost of living crisis

• climate change

Water Footprints

A measure of humans use of water and our impacts on natural water resources

Water Security

People have enough and affordable water to stay healthy. There is sufficient water for agriculture, industry and energy. People are protected from water related hazards.

How do people manage water?

• Construction of reservoirs

• Water transfer schemes

• Abstraction of groundwater

Construction of reservoirs and dams

Put in place to raise water levels upstream and also provides hydraulic power:

• Displaces people

• Causes other places to get less water causing political tensions

Water transfer schemes

Transferring water from countries with water surplus to a country with water shortage from reservoirs through pipes and canals.

Abstraction of water

Abstracting less polluted water from the ground:

• Abstracting too much and not allowing it to replenish

Social, economic and environmental consequences of: Lesotho Highlands Water Project (Management of water resources at an international scale where rivers cross national boundaries)

Positives:

• Makes a lot of money as it is an important source of income

• Provides a lot of energy for Lesotho

• Provides a lot of water

• Provides a lot of electricity

• Creates a lot of job

• Some aquatic animals benefit from them

Negatives:

• Flooding

• Displacement of people

• Creates conflicts between the local validity

• Some people are not being supplied the jobs or compensation they were promised

• Endangers animals and vegetation

Social, economic and environmental consequences of: South Africa and Limpopo Fog Harvesting small scale water management where appropriate levels of technology are used)

Positives:

• Nets and poles are relatively cheap

• Repairs are easy to make and require little training

• Ground water is contaminated

• Fog harvesting technology does not need any electrical energy

• Many rural areas do not have piped supply from a reservoir

Negatives:

• It is not foggy everyday

• Repairs are essential and nets are easily torn by the wind

• Some of the foggiest sites are some distance from rural communities

Social, economic and environmental consequences of: Over-Abstraction of Groundwater (Over-abstraction of groundwater where alternate futures are considered)

Positives:

• Groundwater is believed to be less polluted than surface water as surface water is often contaminated with human waste

• Water vendors also often sell water for high prices therefore building a well to abstract ground water is believed to be cheaper in the long term

• Farmers have been encouraged to grow more food to keep up with the growing population therefore require more water

• There are long dry periods and monsoon season can often be unpredictable

Negatives:

• Over-abstraction means that, in the long term there will be limited water to abstract

• Crops are unable to grow due to the dehydrated soil

Development

An improvement in a number of characteristics

HDI

Looks at people and their capabilities as well as economic measures

GNI

Calculated by adding up the value of output by resident producers + primary income from abroad + any product taxes

GDP

Includes national income, output and expenditure

Measures of Development

GNI, GNI Per Capita, GDP, HDI, Literacy Rate, People per doctor, Access to safe water, Infant Mortality, Life expectancy

Brandt Line

A line that divides the “poor south” and the “rich north”

Limitations of the Brandt Line

There are countries with higher middle GNI, GDP and HDI below the Brandt Line especially as LICs and MICs further develop

Limitations with using national wealth as a comparative measure of development

Only shows economic development and says nothing about whether people in a country have a good standard of living. It is an average and may hide differences in wealth within a country.

The development continuum

A sliding scale from least to most developed countries, with lots of intermediates such as the newly-industrialised countries.

Causes of Uneven development

• Climate

• Corruption

• Geography

• Culture → Religious beliefs that limit development

• Colonisation

Exports

Goods and services produced in one country and shipped to another

Imports

Goods and services brought into one country from another

Tariffs

Taxes imposed on imports

Quotas

Limits on the amount of goods imported

Subsidies

Benefits given by the government usually in the form of cash payment or tax reduction

Trading blocs

Groups of countries that work together to promote free trade between the members

Interdependent

Where countries are linked together in a complex web so that they are dependent on each other

Primary industry

Extracting raw materials (LICs)

Secondary industry

Manufacturing raw materials into goods (NICs)

Tertiary

Provision of a service (HICs)

Quaternary

Intellectual/knowledge-based products and services

Why do the different industries cause uneven development?

Raw products tend to sell for very little and the price can fluctuate overtime whereas the price of manufactured goods, services and intellectual knowledge is higher and tends to rise

How do trade blocs contribute to the development gap?

LICs are often excluded from trade blocs therefore HICs in the same trade bloc trade freely and easily between each other whereas LICs outside of the trade blocs do not have such easy access to these goods as tariffs would have to be paid therefore HICs can continue to develop whereas LICs cannot, causing the development gap.

How do tariffs on imports contribute to the development gap?

Some poorer countries cannot afford to pay these tariffs in order to export their goods into other countries, reducing their sales.

Trade deficit

More imports than exports

Gambia (LIC): Trade leading to uneven development: Problems with Exports

• Gambia relies heavily on travel and tourism as an export → very vulnerable industry as demand can decrease quickly leaving the country’s economy severely depleted

• Gambia also relies heavily on agriculture as an export → a disagreement in supply and demand/extreme weather events that negatively affect agricultural land such as flooding or droughts may reduce agricultural activity and therefore exports, significantly impacting the economy.

Gambia (LIC): Trade leading to uneven development: Problems with Imports

35% Of Gambia’s imports are agricultural therefore, if something happens to their suppliers, they will have a massive depletion in resources

India (NIC): Trade leading to uneven development: How has India Reduced the Development Gap?

• Large portion of exports are services

• Decreasing the number of people in and the size of the agricultural industry

• Increasing the number of people in and the size of the services industry

• Exporting more products unique to India’s culture and resources therefore they are less likely to face competition

MNC

Multinational Companies

Global Shift

The movement of manufacturing and outsourcing of services from west to east

Globalisation

People and places around the world are linked by the process of globalisation. Close links are made between countries through trade, migrations and the investment of MNCs. This is helped by improving communication technology. Globalisation helps to create economic growth.

What factors drive globalisation?

• Trade

• MNCs

• Transport

• Communication

Why do MNCs locate plants in less developed countries? (Pull and Push factors)

Pull Factors:

• Cheap labour

• Large profit margin

• Location of factories

• Cheap land

• Less competition

• Cheaper materials

Push Factors:

• Expensive labour

• More robust worker’s rights (workers rights are often exploited in LICs)

• Expensive land

• High competition

Advantages of MNCs in NICs

• Investment of MNCs creates the multiplier effect driving the country’s economic development:

  • Factories are built for the MNC creating jobs and further investment → creates demand for housing → creates demand for shops and services → leads to the multiplication and the improvement of them too → businesses grow and pay more tax → enables the government to spend more money on roads, other services etc. → creates recognition for the country → attracting more businesses to invest there

• Companies provide expensive machinery and introduce modern technology

• Improves levels of education and technical skills of local people

Disadvantages of MNCs in NICs

• Money could be spent elsewhere than on encouraging foreign countries to invest

• Big schemes can end up increasing national debt

• Decisions are being made outside of the country that might not always be in the best interest of the country

• Insufficient attention to health and safety can lead to unsafe working conditions

• Local labourers have to work long hours and worker’s rights may not always be enforced

• Poor environmental regulations can lead to exploitation of the environment

• MNCs may leave if stricter worker’s rights are enforced, leaving a gap in the local economy

Outsourcing

When a business gets some of its goods, components or services from an outside supplier

How do MNCs grow?

• Merging with consolidation → forming a new company

• Acquisition → when a bigger company buys a smaller company

• Opening more branches around the world therefore reaching new markets

SEZ

Special Economic Zone: An area in which the business and trade laws are different from the rest of the country. SEZs are located within a country’s national borders and their aims include increasing trade balance, employment, increased investment, job creation and effective administration. To encourage businesses to set up in the zone, financial policies are introduced.

Case Study: India and Tata Steel: Why has it grown so quickly?

• Globalisation

• Headquarters are in Mumbai:

  • 60th Largest Company

  • 700,000 employees worldwide

  • Owns 38 companies in the UK

Case Study: India and Tata Steel: Impacts on HICs as they deindustrialize

• Even though the EU imposed tariffs on Chinese Steel, the UK steel industry could not compete with the lower cost of Chinese steel.

• This resulted in TATA losing a lot of money in lost profits. As a consequence, many jobs were lost in the UK Steel Industry.

• Many indirect jobs were also lost, resulting in a Negative Multiplier Effect within some regions of the UK

Dependency Theory

Resources flow from a “periphery” of poor and underdeveloped states to a “core” of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former

Neo-colonialism

A foreign power indirectly controlling or influencing a territory and its people, usually through financial means

Tourism

Commercial organisation and operation of holidays and visits to places of interest

Enclave tourism

Tourism development that generally operates within a clearly demarcated, self-contained environment

Causes of growth in tourism

• Advancement in transport links/modes of transport

• Tourism is advertised more/ease of booking → packages

• More disposable income as places develop

• More development in the tourist sector in NICs

What opportunities does tourism create?

• Employment → provides 1 in 10 jobs worldwide

• Economic development

• Economic diversification

• Biodiversity conservation → sustainable tourism

What challenges does tourism create?

• Environmental degradation → puts pressure on resources/environment

• Leaky tourism → Money from international travel associations goes back to the HIC in which it is set up rather than benefitting the local economy

• Foreign gentrification → countries become what tourists want/exploitation of culture

Concept of enclave tourism

Travel companies often sell ‘all inclusive’ holidays.

• Tourists pay one price for transport, accommodation, food, drinks and entertainment.

• Cruise ships offer a similar type of holiday.

• Tourists are reluctant to leave the hotels/cruise ship in order to buy food and drink as they feel they have ‘paid for everything’ already

Consequences of enclave tourism

The consequences of this are that the economy of the local destinations benefit very little from tourism as most of the money is kept by MNCs like TUI or Royal Caribbean

Positives and Negatives of tourism in Gambia (LIC)

Negatives:

• Tourism is seasonal → leaves many people unemployed or underemployed for several months → forcing them to turn to work in the informal sector → do not pay tax → economy does not benefit → income is not reliable → people cannot provide for themselves or their families

• Increases cost of living

• Leaky tourism

• Deforestation/destruction of other natural sites

• Disrespecting of cultures/religious beliefs

Positives:

• Creates jobs

• Benefits economy

• Attracts MNCs

• Conservation of environment

• Conservation of cultural sites, skills and events

• Improvement/Development in infrastructure due to its high demand and increased disposable income

• Positive multiplier effect

Positives and Negatives of tourism in Goa (NIC)

Negatives:

• Deforestation and destruction of sand dunes and mangrove swamps to make room for hotels, water is extracted for hotels to run → decreases biodiversity and protection from soil erosion

• Increased waste management issues

• Commercialisation and destruction of tradition for tourist benefit

• Disrespect also occurs in places such as religious buildings where people do not where the correct clothing

• Leaky tourism

• Tourism has increased crime

• Tourism has caused overcrowding in honeypot sites

• Cost of living has increased

Positives:

• Provides jobs and increases GDP→ increased standard of living by 70%

• Allows women to get jobs and increase their wealth

• Infrastructure has developed massively due to increase in demand and disposable income → better and more services are provided

• Positive multiplier effect

Emergency Aid

Immediate/short term aid to preserve life

Long-term aid

Aims to preserve/improve quality of life

Why do countries give aid?

• Extreme weather events/Natural disasters that cause destruction

• Strengthen alliances

• To sustain being part of an organisation such as WHO

• Encouraging education and healthcare

• Providing military support

Bi-lateral aid

Direct aid given from one country to another

Multi-lateral aid

Many countries providing aid which is then distributed by a central body/organisation

Causes of inequality in India

• Some groups of people remain poor because they are excluded from part or all of their education or better jobs: women, people with disabilities, Muslims, Dalits and tribal groups

• Huge numbers of Indians work in very low paid jobs

• Extreme weather events

• Climate change

• Government rule

Consequences of Inequality in India

• Health → low life expectancy in some areas

• Education → low literacy rate in some areas

• Economic → people unable to find jobs

Examples for Inequality in India

Bihar:

• Very rural → less work opportunities

• 30+% of people live in poverty

• Less than 50% of people can read and write

• Government has only recently started to invest in public health and education

Kerala:

• Government is generous in funding public health and education

• Very low poverty rate

• Very high literacy rate

• Very high life expectancy

• Policies to help reduce birth rate → Low birth rate

• Focus on girls attending school

North/South divide in the UK

Better standard of living in the south than in the North:

• Higher life expectancy in the south for both males and females

• Higher earnings overall for both men and women in the south

• There are still some areas of that earn higher in the north and lower in the south