Unit 2 Exam

science

a field and practice the obtain knowledge and generates theories through observation and experiement

non sicence

idea formed without evidence or the use of the scientific method or principals

aim

a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation

hypothesis

a testable predicition about the outcome of an investigation

independent variable

the variable that the researcher manipulates and that has a direct effect on the DV

dependent variable

the variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable

controlled experiment

a type of investigation in which the causal relationship between two variables is tested in a controlled environment

case study

an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon.

correlational study

a type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variable without any active control or manipulation of them

fieldwork

any research involving observation and interaction with people and environmental in real-world settings, conducted beyond the laboratory

literature review

the process of collating and analysing secondary data related to other people’s scientific findings.

simulation

a process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system

classification

the arrengement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets

identifcation

a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set

within subjects design

an exprimental design in which participants complete every experimental lcondition

between subjects design

an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition

mixed design

an experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs

population

the group of people who are the focus of the researchers and from which the sample is drawn

sample

a subset of the research population who participate in a stuy

convience sampling

any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach

random sampling

any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected

stratified sampling

any sampling technique that involves selecting from the population in a way that ensure the subgroups are proportionally represented in the sample

extraneous variables

any variable that is not the independent variable but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable

confounding variable

a variable that has directly and systematically affected the dependent variable, apart from the IV

participant-related variables

characteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results

order effects

the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour

placebo effect

when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs

counterbalancing

a method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way

single-blind procedure

a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental condition they have been allocated to

double-blind procedure

a procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do no know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to

primary data

data collected first-hand by a researcher

secondary data

data sourced from others' prior research

quantitative data

data that is expressed numerically

qualitative data

data that is expressed non-numerically

objective data

factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion

subjective data

data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation

validity

the extent to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their finding or conclusions

internal validity

the extent to which an investigation truly measure or investigates what it claims to

external validity

the extent to which the results of the investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings

systematic errors

errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount

random errors

errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance

beneficence

the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

integrity

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of this information

confidentialty

the privacy, protection and security of a particpants personal information in terms of personal details.

ethical guidlines

the procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected

informed consent

processes that ensure particpants understand tha nature and purpose of the experiment

deception

the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure

debriefing

a procedire that ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the particpants leaves undersyand the experimental aim, results, and conclusions

voluntary participation

a princple that ensure there is no coercion or pressure put on the particpant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved

withdrawal rights

an individuals right to discontinue participation within an experiment at any time

person perception

the different mental processes used to understand and form impressions of other people

attribution

an evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and the process of making this evaluation

internal attribution

when we judge behaviour as being caused by something personal within an individual

external attribution

when we determine the cause of a behaviour as resulting from situational factors occurring outside the individual

tri-component model of attitudes

a model which illustrates the relationship between the affective, behavioural, and cognitive components of our attitudes

stereotype

a widely held belief and generalisation about a group, such as people, animals or objects

cognitive dissonance

the psychological tension that occurs when our thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviours do not align with one another

cognitive biases

unconcious, systematic tendancies to interpret information in a way that is neither rational nor based on objective reality

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for and accept information that supports our prior beliefs or behaviours and ignore contradictory information

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors and situational causes while attribution other people’s actions to internal factors

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute positive success to out internal character and actors and attribute our failures to external factors or situational causes

false-consensus bias

the tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people share the same ideas and attitudes as we do

halo effect

the tendency for the impression we form about one quality of a person to influence our overall beliefs about the person in other respects

heuristics

information processing strategies or ‘mental shortcuts’ that enable individuals to form judgements, make decisions, and solve problems quickly and efficiently

anchoring heuristic

an information processing strategy that involves forming judgements based on the first information received about an idea or concept

base-rate fallacy

a type of bias in which decisions, social perceptions, and judgements are influenced by more vivid memories and experiences that statistical fact

availability heuristic

an information processing strategy that enables individuals to form a judgement, solve a problem, or make a decisions based on information that is easily accesible

representative heuristc

an information-processing strategy that involves making a categorical judgement about an idea, event, or person based on their similarity to other items in that category

affect heuristic

an information processing strategy that involves using emotions to make a judgement or decision

prejudice

an often negative preconception held against people within a certain group or social category

discrimination

the unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category

stigma

the feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others

ways to reduce prejudice, discrimination and stigma

education, inter-group contact, social media, laws

group

two or more people who interact and influence each other and share a common objective

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to or identifies with

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to or identify with

group norms

a standard, value, or rule that outlines an appropriate behaviour or experience within a group

social identity theory

the tendency for people to favour their in-group over an out-group in order to enhance their sense of self-esteem

social loafing

an individuals reduction in effort when work is performed in a group as compared to individually, due to the belief that others will put in the effort

individual culture

a culture that prioritises the needs and goals of individuals and value independence

collectivist culture

a culture that prioritises the needs and goals of group

obedience

complying with commands which are often given by a source of authority

conformity

adjusting one’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviours to match those of others, a social group, or a social situation

social norms

society’s unofficial rules and expectations regarding how individuals should act

group think

a psychological phenomenon in which assumed group unanimity overrules individuals’ realistic appraisal of consequences

group shift

a condition in which the influence of the group causes an individual to adopt a more extreme position

deindividuation

the tendency for individuals to lose their sense of identity and individuality within a group

factors that influence obedience

status of authority figure, proximity, group pressure

factors that influence conformity

group think, group shift, social norms, deindividuation

social connections

the network of people available to someone for support and engagement

social comparison

a proposal that humans measure their self-worth in relation to the people around them

addicatve behaviours

behaviours that are associatef with a dependence upon a particular stimulus, despite negative consequences

information access

how easily information can be accessed by different people

independence

being free from the control or influence of others

self determination theory

the concept that people achieve self determination when three basic psychological needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness

extrinsic motivation

engaging in activities or behaviours for their external benefits

intrinsic motivation

engaging in activities or behaviours for their internal benefits

anti-conformity

a deliberate refusal to comply with social norms or standard for thoughts, feelings, or behavioursf

factors that influence anti-conformity

desire to promote change, reactance, individuation, social support

reactance

a motivational state of distress and resistance, caused by a desire to regain personal freedom after it has been removed or threatened by external sources