A metabolic process that converts glucose and oxygen into energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.
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Pyruvate Oxidation
The process in which pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, producing NADH and CO2.
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Krebs Cycle
Also known as the citric acid cycle, a series of reactions that break down acetyl-CoA to produce ATP, NADH, FADH2, and CO2.
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Glycolysis
The first stage of cellular respiration occurring in the cytoplasm, where glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules.
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
The final stage of cellular respiration, where ATP is generated via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.
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Electron Transport Chain
A series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons and pump protons to create a gradient used to synthesize ATP.
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NADH
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form); an electron carrier that transports electrons to the electron transport chain.
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FADH2
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (reduced form); an electron carrier that donates electrons at a lower energy level than NADH.
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Proton Gradient
A difference in proton concentration across a membrane, used to drive ATP synthesis.
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Chemiosmosis
The movement of protons across a membrane through ATP synthase, facilitating the production of ATP.
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ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.
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Aerobic Respiration
A process that requires oxygen to produce ATP, involving glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
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Fermentation
An anaerobic process that converts glucose into energy without requiring oxygen, producing either ethanol or lactic acid.
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Allosteric Regulation
The regulation of an enzyme or protein by binding an effector molecule at a site other than the active site.
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Feedback Inhibition
A regulatory mechanism in which a product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an enzyme involved in its production.
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Transcription
The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.
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Translation
The process of synthesizing proteins from RNA.
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Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.
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Chromatin
Complex of DNA and protein found in the nucleus, which packages DNA into a compact form.
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Nucleosome
The basic unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment of DNA wound around a core of histone proteins.
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Histones
Basic proteins that help package and order DNA into nucleosomes within chromatin.
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RNA Polymerase
An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
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Promoter
A specific DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.
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Introns
Noncoding sequences within a gene that are removed during RNA processing.
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Exons
Coding sequences within a gene that are retained in the final mRNA transcript.
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Primase
An enzyme that synthesizes a short RNA primer needed for DNA replication.
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Ligase
An enzyme that connects DNA strands by forming covalent bonds between nucleotides.
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Exonuclease
An enzyme that cleaves nucleotides one at a time from the end of a polynucleotide chain.
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Endonuclease
An enzyme that cleaves the phosphodiester bond within a polynucleotide chain.
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Telomeres
Repeats at the ends of linear chromosomes that protect them from degradation.
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Topoisomerase
An enzyme that alters the supercoiling of DNA during replication.
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Euchromatin
Less condensed form of chromatin that is actively transcribed into RNA.
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Heterochromatin
Highly condensed form of chromatin that is generally inactive in transcription.
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RNA Processing
Modifications made to RNA transcripts before they are translated into proteins.
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mRNA
Messenger RNA; the RNA that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
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rRNA
Ribosomal RNA; the RNA component of ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis.
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tRNA
Transfer RNA; the RNA that transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
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Cofactors
Non-protein chemical compounds that are necessary for the biological activity of some enzymes.
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Electrochemical Gradient
A gradient created by the difference in concentration and charge across a membrane.
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Acetyl-CoA
A molecule that enters the Krebs cycle for energy production after pyruvate oxidation.
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Oxidation
The loss of electrons from a substance during a chemical reaction.
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Reduction
The gain of electrons by a substance during a chemical reaction.
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Anabolic Pathway
A metabolic pathway that constructs molecules from smaller units, typically requiring energy.
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Catabolic Pathway
A metabolic pathway that breaks down molecules into smaller units, releasing energy.
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Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often to activate or deactivate enzymes.
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Signal Transduction
The process by which a cell responds to signals from the external environment.
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Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
The direct transfer of a phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP, in metabolic pathways.
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Mitochondria
The organelles responsible for ATP production through the processes of aerobic respiration.
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Glycoprotein
A protein that has carbohydrate groups attached to it, important for cell recognition and signaling.
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cAMP
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; a secondary messenger in many biological processes.
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Signal Amplification
The process by which one signal molecule can trigger a maximum response by activating multiple downstream proteins.
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RNA Splicing
The process of removing introns from RNA transcripts and joining exons together.
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Transcription Factors
Proteins that help regulate the transcription of specific genes by binding to nearby DNA.
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RNA Editing
A molecular process through which some cells can make discrete changes to specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after it has been generated by RNA polymerase.
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Genetic Code
The set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins.
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Degeneracy of the Genetic Code
The redundancy in the genetic code, where multiple codons can specify the same amino acid.
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Codon
A sequence of three nucleotides that corresponds to a specific amino acid.
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Amino Acid
The building blocks of proteins, consisting of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain.
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Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that folds into a functional protein.
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Mutation
A change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA.
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Frameshift Mutation
A genetic mutation caused by indels of a number of nucleotides that are not divisible by three.
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Point Mutation
A mutation affecting a single nucleotide, often resulting in a change in the corresponding amino acid.
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Silent Mutation
A mutation that does not change the amino acid sequence of a protein.
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Missense Mutation
A nucleotide change that results in the substitution of one amino acid for another in a protein.
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Nonsense Mutation
A mutation that creates a premature stop codon, resulting in a truncated protein.
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Replication Fork
The Y-shaped region where the DNA is unwound during replication.
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Ori
Origin of replication; a specific sequence of bases where DNA replication begins.
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Lagging Strand
The strand of DNA that is synthesized discontinuously in short segments during replication.
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Leading Strand
The strand of DNA that is synthesized in a continuous manner towards the replication fork.
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Okazaki Fragments
Short, newly synthesized DNA fragments formed on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
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DNA Ligase
An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds.
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Hydrogen Bonds
Weak bonds that form between complementary bases in the DNA double helix.
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Antiparallel
Describes the orientation of two DNA strands in a double helix, running in opposite directions.
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DNA Triple Helix
A rare form of DNA in which three strands of DNA are intertwined.
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Covalent Bond
A strong bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
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Hydrophobic Interaction
The tendency of nonpolar substances to aggregate in an aqueous environment to avoid water.
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Plasmid
A small, circular piece of DNA commonly found in bacteria, used in genetic engineering.
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Cloning Vector
A DNA molecule used to carry foreign genetic material into a host cell.
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PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
A technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA.
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Genetic Engineering
The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.
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Transgenic Organism
An organism that contains a gene or genes which have been artificially inserted instead of the organism acquiring them through reproduction.
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Gene Therapy
A technique in which genes are inserted, altered, or removed from a person's cells to treat disease.
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Bioinformatics
The application of computer technology to the management of biological information, particularly in genetics.
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CRISPR
A technology for editing genomes, allowing researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function.
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Genome
The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
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Epidemiology
The branch of medicine that deals with the incidence, distribution, and control of diseases.
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Phenotype
The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, as determined by both genetic makeup and environmental influences.
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Genotype
The genetic constitution of an individual organism.
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Biotechnology
The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.
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Protein Folding
The process by which a protein takes on its functional shape or conformation.
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Chaperone Proteins
Proteins that assist in the folding of other proteins.
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Enzyme Kinetics
The study of the rates of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
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Allosteric Site
A site on an enzyme other than the active site that can bind regulatory molecules.
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Zymogen
An inactive precursor of an enzyme that requires a biochemical change to become an active enzyme.
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Signal Transduction Pathway
A series of molecular events and reactions that lead to a cellular response.
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Phosphorylation Cascade
A series of chemical reactions during cell signaling that involve sequential phosphorylation of proteins.
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Membrane Potential
The difference in electric charge across a cell membrane.
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Endocytosis
The process by which cells internalize substances from their external environment.
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Exocytosis
The process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane to release their contents outside the cell.
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Apoptosis
A form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.
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