Henry's last years

rivalry between conservative and reformist factions, H8’s poor health, egotism of H8, lack of chief minister

Why did factionalism intensify between 1540-47?

enjoyed watching noblemen and counsellors fighting for royal attention

How was H8 egotistic?

still able to catch advisers on the wrong foot

How was H8 still prominent despite his poor health?

six articles, Cromwell’s fall[their greatest enemy], Catherine Howard’s marriage to H8

What 3 key victories did the conservative faction enjoy by 1540?

Conservative faction

this faction accepted the break with Rome but opposed doctrinal changes

Reform faction

this faction accepted the break with Rome, seeing it as an opportunity to introduce Protestant doctrines into the Church

Duke of Norfolk[Thomas Howard], Stephen Gardiner[Bishop of Winchester]

Who led the conservative faction?

Edward Seymour[Earl of Hertford and later Duke of Somerset], Archbishop Cranmer

Who led the reform faction?

Six Articles[1539], fall of Thomas Cromwell, Catherine Howard, plot against Cranmer in 1543, plot against Catherine Parr in 1546

What were the conservative faction associated with?

foreign policy success in Scotland, fall of Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr, plot against Gardiner in 1544, arrest of Norfolk in 1546

What were the reform faction associated with?

Plot against Cranmer in 1543

• Conservatives tried to break H8 and Cranmer friendship by suggesting the Archbishop was dabbling with protestant heresy.

• H8 rejected the allegations

• H8 put Cranmer in charge of the investigation into the claims.

Plot against Catherine Parr in 1546

The conservative faction accused member of Catherine Parr’s household of heresy, which failed after H8 defended his wife

Edward and Elizabeth firmly in favour of Protestant reforms, opposed to Catholic Mary

Why is H8’s defence of Catherine Parr in 1546 significant?

Catherine H. beheaded in 1542 for adultery, Catherine Parr, plots in 1543 and 1546 failed

Why was the success of the conservative faction short-lived?

1541 - King presented with evidence of unfaithfulness, men implicated in her adultery were executed, and she was beheaded in February 1542

When was Catherine Howard downfall?

Catherine Parr

• A recently widowed lady who married H8 in July 1543

• Close to the Seymour family

• Protestant sympathiser

• Patronage of scholars at her court who she allowed to manage the education of Edward and Elizabeth

Catherine Howard

• Niece of the Duke of Norfolk

• H8’s fifth wife

Cath P. survived, Edward Seymour gained prominence in court, Sir. William Paget, Sir Anthony Denny

How was the reform faction dominant?

Sir. William Paget

• trusted by H8 and chief adviser from 1545 onwards

• Appointed to Privy Council in 1545

Sir. Anthony Denny

• Keen supporter of religious reforms

• Became the Chief Gentleman of the King’s Privy Chamber in 1546

responsible for choosing who had access to the king, closer influence over h8, access to dry stamp

What was the significance of Sir. Anthony Denny as Chief Gentleman of the King’s Privy Chamber?

Plot against Gardiner in 1544

• Accused by the reformers of suggesting that the Pope be reinstated

• Trumped up accusation that he was refusing to grant some of his lands to the king, was enough to push him out of the inner circle of royal advisers

miscalculation of plotting against Queen in 1546, plot by reformists in 1544

How was Gardiner’s career, leading bishop opposed to doctrinal reforms, in decline?

Dry Stamp

Instead of bothering the sickly Henry with every trivial document that needed signing, the holder of this stamp could make an impression of the royal signature on to any paper.

legalise any document they chose, including an altered version of Henry’s will which he was too ill to approve

What did the dry stamp allow the reform faction to do?

added provisions that strengthened the power of the Regency Council

What did the reform faction do to Henry’s will that left the succession as Henry had agreed in the 1544 Succession Act?

Duke of Norfolk and his son Earl of Surrey arrested on charges of treason, with an Act of Attainder placed on them

How was the conservative faction broken apart in December 1546?

rumours that he had spoken openly about family’s claim to throne, put part of the royal coat of arms of his ancestor King Edward onto his own family emblem

Why was the Earl of Surrey arrested in 1546?

Bishop Gardiner removed from the Regency Council, Henry’s will in hands of reform faction

What was the result of the arrest of Norfolk and his son, the Earl of Surrey?

regency to be manage by a council of sixteen men

What the terms of Henry’s will set out?

Edward’s uncle, prominent figure of reform faction, successful military career, close to H8

Why was Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, the best option for leadership of the Regency Council as Lord Protector?

took tile of the Duke of Somerset, promote supporter with new titles and positions in government, appointed own Privy Council from a wider circle of men than usual

What did Edward Seymour do following his promotion to Lord Protector in the Regency Council?

Henry’s illness, age of only surviving son

Why was the Earl of Surrey’s claim to the throne as sensitive issue?

The Ottoman Turks under Suleiman the Magnificent

European powers concerned with their encroachment in the South East

Besieged Vienna in 1529, threatened eastern Mediterranean and North African coast by the mid-1530’s

Why were the turks a threat?

Pope excommunicated H8 in 1538

Why was the Pope and Catholic Europe the main concern of Cromwell and H8?

Catholic Europe, Turks

Who were H8’s enemies in his last years?

Schmalkaldic League and Northern Germany, France

Who were England options as allies?

Schmalkaldic League(1531)

Many Princes in Northern Germany had turned to Lutheranism in part as a means of preserving their semi-independence from Charles V

league was searching for allies, Cromwell tried but failed to form alliance against France and Habsburgs, disastrous marriage of Anne C.

What did England’s relations with the Schmalkaldic League include?

divorce angered HRE Charles V

Why was France the only obvious ally?

Truce of Nice(1538)

• Truce between Francis and Charles

• May have been a factor in H8 publishing Six Article in 1539

• Short-lived

Six Articles(1539)

restating very clearly some key Catholic doctrines in an effort to appease the Pope and Catholic Europe

two Catholic nations backed by Pope, isolated England, fear of invasion

What was the problem with the Truce of Nice?

conflict resumed following year, renewing H8’s search for Catholic allies

Why was the Truce of Nice short-lived?

pro-French policy, married Mary of Guise in 1538(a relative of the French king), disrespected H8 by failing to attend the pre-arranged talks for an agreement to secure England’s security

James V intensified potential threat

Battle of Solway Moss, 1542

• 1k Scots taken prisoners

• Scots defeated

suffering from fever—died weak after defeat, daughter Mary becomes Mary Queen of Scots

Why was James V absent from Solway Moss in November 1542?

Sent Duke of Norfolk to attack the Scots, military success

What did H8 do when by 1542 he was already sufficiently concerned and irritated with Scotland?

Treaty of Greenwich(1543)

• H8 proposed union of Edward and Mary, Queen of Scots to strengthen English influence in Scotland

• Too much for Scots — collapse of treaty and renewal of war, Scots look to France once again

Earl of Hertford led English army in a series of raids in the border region(1544-45), since Scotland unwilling to accept marraige between Edward and Mary

What was the rough wooing of Scotland?

prevented Scotland and France from combining, but at great financial cost

How was H8 successful with dealing with Scotland?

crown kept solvent by repeated request to Parliament for subsidies, debasement of coinage, and monastic lands

How did H8’s Scotland campaign impact finances?

Francis and Charles once again at war in 41’, France allies with Turks against Habsburgs in 42’, H8 allies with Habsburgs against France

How was the situation very fluid in foreign policy as the 1540s began?

H8 arrived with 48k men, supposed to march on Paris with Charles, followed their own priorities, both blamed latter for not sticking to the plan

Why was Henry’s 1544 French campaign a failure?

wanted glory: captured and fortified Bolougne, then went home

What did H8 do after parting with Charles?

signs peace treaty with Francis at Crépy

What did Charles do after parting with H8?

strengthens defences in south coast and fortifying St. Mawes, Pendennis

What did H8 do after Francis threatened to invade England in reprisal of his 1544 France campaign?

French incompetence, adverse winds in Channel, lack of base for French, Bolougne’s defences hold out

Why did the French invasion of England fail in 1545?

Treaty of Ardres(1546)

• Result of the military stalemate of the failed 1545 French invasion of England

• Henry kept Boulogne and was promised renewal of payments of pension money from the French

H8 kept Bolougne but to be returned by 1554 if pension money was paid, renewal of payments of pension money from the French,

Terms of the Treaty of Ardres(1546)

cost £2m, large-scale burrowing, monastic lands, debasement of the coinage, inflation

What was the financial costs of the war against France?

debasement of the coinage

reduction of silver content in coins by substituting with cheaper metals, allowing more coins to be circulated by the government

Bolougne, Treaty of Ardres

H8 enhanced the reputation of the Tudors through the acquisition of glory

the Fitzgeralds

• Irish leading family who supported Lambert Simnel and Burgundy against the new Tudor King

• Lord-Deputies in Ireland

the Pale

• The area around Dublin most under English control

• English control was mostly limited to this area

Thomas Fritzgerald

• Led a rebellion in 1536

• Claimed that the Pope had been displaced by Henry becoming Head of the Church

• Announced support for Pope and HRE Charles V

Suppressed 1536 rebellion, replaced Lord Deputies with St. Leger, confiscated Land, included Irish Lords in Parliament

How did H8 strengthen his control over Ireland?

extended English common law, policy of plantations, brutality and executions, transformed Ireland clan-based Gaelic structure to more centralised monarchical state

How did H8 establish royal authority in Ireland?

Plantations

• This began in a small scale during Edward VI and in Elizabeth’s reign, and involved sending thousands of Protestants from England to Ireland

• Process of breaking down feudal territories

• Proved to be slow

Protestant influence, Dis. of the Mons., Bible in English, Act of Supremacy, growth of protestant factions

Largest religious changes to the Church

enforced Catholic beliefs about the Eucharist and Communion, reinforced 7 sacraments, priests celibacy

H8’s swing backs to Catholicism — Six Articles(1539), which:

fall of Cromwell in 40’, rise of conservative faction, Protestants persecuted, only official view of H8 allowed

How did Protestantism take the back foot in the later years?

Cranmer remained ArchB. of Canterbury, Bible still in English, Pope no control of Church in England, Cath P. encouraged Protestantism

Developments between 1540-47 included:

Cranmer able to introduce English Bible in 1545, Less emphasis on Saints(Saints days reduced to 25), pilgrimages forbidden

What were some elements of Protestantism that had been introduced by the death of H8?

Truce of Nice in 38’, death of Jane Seymour making way for Anne C.

What led the way for an opportunity for a Protestant alliance for Cromwell?

Anne of Cleeves

• Arranged by Cromwell to marry H8 in 1539

• Sister of the Duke of Cleeves in Germany

• H8 not too happy with he looks, taking a general dislike to her, and suggested that the marriage ought to be canceled.

Cath H. spread rumours CW was intentionally delaying divorce, Norfolk suggested CW was protecting a group of Protestants in Calais

How did Cromwell’s enemies, Norfolk and conservative faction, feed on his blunder in early 1540 and poison H8’s mind?

Anne C., Protestant sympathies, Protestant alliance with Duke of Cleeves, Cath H. infatuation, Conservative faction and Norfolk

What were the causes of Cromwell’s fall?

Anne C., Protestant sympathies, Protestant alliance with Duke of Cleeves

What made H8 suspicious that CW was prioritising his own interests?

Cath H. infatuation, Conservative faction and Norfolk

What clouded H8’s judgement and led to Cromwell’s fall?

A disciple of Machiavelli, tyrant

How do most people see Cromwell?

brilliant public servant, strongly believed in the rule of law, keen on protestant reform

What is Elton’s take on Cromwell?

bent the law to serve H8’s interest, but never used fear beyond the accepted level of the time

Why is Cromwell not a tyrant according to Elton?

influenced H8, ally to reform faction, lever against conservatives

Why was Cromwell’s Protestantism significant?

H8 had matured and wished for more control of policy

Why was Cromwell’s hold over H8 not as firm as Wolsey’s?

power relied on control of rival factions, and not his influence over the immature H8 like Wolsey

Why was Cromwell not as secure as Wolsey was in the King’s household?

success in plotting Anne B.’s fall

What was the highpoint of Cromwell’s reign?