Global Environmental Policies Midterm Flashcards

What are externalities (negative externalities)? Example

Negative externalities are consequences that fall on a third party who had nothing to do with their initiation. An example would be air pollution from a factory affecting one’s health.

What are the commons?

The commons are a public resource that people can not be excluded from using.

What is the basic problem of the Tragedy of the Commons (TOC)?

People take too much of the resource for their gain thinking it will not affect anyone else because it is just “a little more”

Provide an example of the TOC.

International fisheries have been depleted because of the lack of enforcement on limits and no country has jurisdiction over the waters because it is the open ocean.

Why does the problem of commons continue?

They are public resources, so there has to be some management of them to limit people from taking too much. Enactment of restrictions takes time, people and money.

What are some possible solutions to the TOC domestically? Explain strengths and disadvantages. 

One solution is to privatize the resource. This would allow only certain people to access the resource. However, this would be hard for resources like water which does not stay in one place or is extremely large, like the ocean. Another solution is to restrict access to the resource. By doing this people are not able to take too many resources. The disadvantage of this is that it takes effort and people to enforce restrictions.

What are some possible solutions to the TOC globally? Explain strengths and disadvantages.

International treaties and agreements on resources is one potential way forward. If countries agree to use fewer resources, then these common resources can last longer. However, since there is no international law enforcement, countries can not be legally bound to these agreements nor do they have to agree.

What is the main difference between the TOC and externalities?

All people are able to benefit from the resources in the tragedy of the commons. Someone experiencing a negative externality will not receive any benefits.

Homer-Dixon claims that environmental scarcity causes acute social conflict. What is environmental scarcity? Name three sources of resource scarcity. Are there other sources of scarcity-related conflicts? Which sources should be considered more seriously, and why? Provide examples.

Environmental scarcity is the depletion of renewable resources faster than they can be produced. This can happen through overexploitation, pollution of the resource, and the mismanagement of a resource. Yes, there can be other sources. If the government does not allow for fair allocation of resources, people can be excluded from resources they need. For example, water is a much needed and scarce resource in many places. If water is diverted for agricultural use only, people may not have the water they need for everyday use.

Why do people place confidence in science for environmental policy?

People assume that the research supporting policy is objective.

Name and briefly explain at least two postmodern criticisms of logical positivism and modern science.

One criticism is that scientists have personal feelings. Some view this as a bias in their research and that these feelings will affect the quality of research. Another criticism is there are different sets of values. For example, people can agree that there are many species threatened with extinction, however, people may have a difference in whether we should value them and spend resources to save them

What is science? What is technology?

Science is a process that seeks to explain some natural phenomenon. Technology is the application of science to a specific need.

What is a variable? Name two types of variables. Provide an example.

A variable is something that can be changed in an experiment.

What are hypotheses? Provide an example.

A proposed explanation for a topic with preliminary evidence

What is a paradigm? Briefly explain the meaning of “scientific revolutions” (Thomas Kuhn).

A paradigm is a well established world view people hold. Scientific revolutions can happen when these paradigms have large shifts in their values.

What are the roles of scientists? What role should science and scientists have in environmental politics?

Scientists roles are to be trend spotters, theory builders, theory testers, communicators, and applied policy analysts. Scientists should have all of these roles in environmental politics because they are knowledgeable about the subject and can provide perspective.

What are the main challenges that science faces being a participant in the policy process? (Discuss values, neutrality, politicization of science, etc.)

There are many challenges scientists face as being a participant in the policy process. People may not view that the scientist's work is valuable or valid to the policy. People may think that scientists are trying to advance their personal agenda rather than contribute to policy.

What is the role of uncertainty in science and policy? Name three sources of uncertainty.

Although scientists have a general idea on a lot of topics, there is still much research to be done in many environmental sectors. Three types of uncertainty include randomness in the world itself, scientific knowledge, and the public and policy makers being uncertain about science

What is a “no regrets policy” and what is a “precautionary principle”?

A policy chosen so that there won’t be any regret if the proposed solution does not aid the underlying conditions causing the environmental issue. Precautionary principles are measures taken even if the full extent of the cause and effect relationship of the problem have not been established scientifically.

Provide a definition of epistemic communities.

A community that can create knowledge and policy due to their knowledge in the subject.

What is international environmental law? Name three types of international law?

Briefly explain the differences between them.

A body of legal rules considered binding upon states in their mutual relations 

• Customary law: norms of behavior between states which are viewed to be a legal requirement

• International Treaty Law: formal written agreements negotiated between states that spell out privileges and obligations in relations to each other

• Resolutions (Soft Law): documents adopted in majority vote in large international bodies like the UN General Assembly

What are the functions of international law? Example.

The three functions of international law are legislative, administrative, and adjudicative functions. Legislative write the rules, administrative execute the enforcement, and adjudicative judge whether the law is fair and if parties are following the law

How is customary law different from treaty law? Examples.

Customary law is behaviors seen as legal requirements but there may not be any formal written or signed agreements like with a treaty.

Name and briefly explain steps in the treaty process.

Negotiations 

Signature: open for all countries who negotiated, does not make states responsible for enforcement.

Ratification: this happens domestically. States have to make it domestic law for it to be enforceable. 

Entering into force: This happens internationally. A certain number of states needs to ratify in order for it to come into force.

Implementation: Happens domestically

Explain why international law is basically consensual.

There is no international enforcement agency nor courts that can uphold the enforcement and compliance with international law.

Why do nations usually comply with international law? Name 4 reasons and briefly explain at least 2 of them.

Stake in the law

Reciprocity 

Preservation of reputation: Countries who want to appear environmentally conscious on the world stage may agree to the laws to keep up their appearance.

Domestic pressure: if people at home want the law to go into effect, this many encourage national lawmakers to draft the law domestically

One of the major challenges in GEP is that inherent and fundamental interdependence of the global environment clashes with the fact that many seas, land, air spaces are part of the sovereign areas of independent states. Explain the difficulties of reconciling sovereignty with transboundary issues. Provide your own argument in this debate.

These areas, although they are a part of sovereign boundaries, are affected by activities from outside of this area. Water and air are both free flowing and do not stay restricted into a certain geographical area. This can cause issues because activities in one state can affect the other. This is also hard to reconcile because both countries often need the economic benefit that the resource is able to provide. Mutual agreements are needed but hard to come by in this debate.

There are different schools of thought in international relations theory: realism, liberalism, institutionalism, constructivism, etc. Briefly describe the main aspects of each. In your view, what school of thought is best suited to describe international environmental relations?

Realism: states are unitary, geographically-based, rational actors in an anarchic international system. States pursue self-interest. Relations are determined by power

Liberalism: State preference determines behavior. Opportunities for cooperation. Power gains can be made through interdependence

Institutionalism: International system is not anarchic and has a structure. Regimes are determined by the decision-making process

Constructivism: role of ideas. Goals, threats, fears, identities, and perceptions constitute reality. 

Ideally I think liberalism would be the way forward to solving international environmental issues. It stresses cooperation between states and wants all states to be able to have a stake in the issues.

Describe 4 types of states (lead, supportive, etc) and provide an example.

Lead State: pioneers the issue (EU States, Historically US) 

Supporting State: Follows lead state but is not as involved 

Swing States: Understand significance but may not have the capacity to be as involved (India) 

Veto State: against issue

How do lead states influence other actors? Name and explain at least 4 ways and provide an example.

Fund or produce research 

Educate and raise public awareness and support

Create Incentives

Use diplomacy through IOs

In what ways do the domestic political and economic factors of various states influence their policies and attitudes toward global environmental issues/treaties? Provide an example.

Domestic self-interest is going to take precedence over any international issues. If a country is struggling economically, they are less likely to agree to any sweeping changes that may not benefit them in the short-term. Brazil until the 80s focused domestically to separate themselves from previous colonial control.

What are the two major factors that states consider in the comparative cost and benefit analysis of joining international environmental treaties?

Long-term viability → small island nations and sea-level rise 

Long-term damage: → CFC banning and the ozone layer

What is the role of sub-national actors/jurisdictions  in international environmental policy? Provide an example.

They can implement and enforce even more restrictive or comprehensive laws than the national government and especially international law.

Why might some states feel that there are “winners” and “losers” in a particular proposal for international cooperation on the environment, even though it might be in the interest of all states?

Some states may have a more immediate gain or benefit to an issue that is proposed to be solved internationally. This can make a state seem like a “winner” to states that might not have any immediate solutions to their problems or benefit from the solution directly.

Define an IO. How do international organizations (IOs) influence global environmental politics? What are the main strengths and limitations of IOs?

An IO is an organization that is composed of multiple independent states that work together to devise potential solutions for the mutual benefit of all states. They can identify issues and problems, negotiate between countries, conduct research, produce publications, hold conferences on issues, create codes of conduct, and influence individual state policies. IOs encourage diplomacy between states but have no enforcement power to ensure resolutions are codified into law in participating states.

What is the mission of the UNEP? When was this organization created? What are its main functions and limitations? Is it time to restructure/change functions of the UNEP?

Created in 1973 as the program of the UN that is focused on environmental protection and conservation. It can start environmental programs in countries and IOs, conduct research, and stimulate international environmental law. Like other IOs, it has no enforcement power and has a relatively small budget and staff. It could produce more research if it were restructured.

What is the mission of the World Bank? When was it created? What influenced major environmental policy-related changes in the WB? Why is WB a such controversial organization?

Provides funding to stimulate developing economies to help speed up development. It was created after WWII to rebuild Western Europe. It is a controversial group because of its chronic debt, its funding displaces people during projects, and ecological impacts of projects are not always considered.

 Do we need a world environmental organization? (consider feasibility, benefits, interests, etc).

Yes, it helps produce research and facilitate cooperation between states. Although one is expensive and has no enforcement powers, this is at least a starting point for working globally to solve environmental issues.

What is civil society? What is an NGO? International Environmental NGO? Provide examples?

Civil society is the level of structure between the individual and the state. This is where societal norms are found and how public issues are addressed. An NGO is a group outside of formal government aimed to achieve social, economic, or political goals. An example of an international environmental NGO is the Nature Conservancy.

What do NGOs do? (their functions). How do NGOs contribute to the development on international environmental politics and regimes? What are major limitations of NGOs?

Call attention to issues, coordinate scientific inquiry, provide expert opinions, propose international laws and policies, lobby the government, educate the public and raise public support. They are able to bridge gaps that governments may not have the authority or resources to cover. They are limited by not having any legislative power over the public and not having enough support either in numbers or financially. 

Are NGOs representative of public interests around the world? Do single issue organizations bring a very balanced view to the process? What NGOs are the major players and why? Examples.

They represent opinions within the public, however, they are specialized, so this may be more involved than the public is. Single issue organizations are often not very balanced because they are focused on one primary issue and often fail to consider other issues in conjunction with theirs.

Explain the evolution of the term “Global South.” What are the main characteristics of the Global North and Global South? (economy, society, politics)? Has North / South divide been ever over?

The term “Global South” emerged in the 70s but wasn’t widespread until the 90s. The Global North is characterized by advanced economies that have completed the process of national integration. The Global South often have dual economies and societies. Poverty and hunger are oftentimes prevalent in these nations.

There is great diversity among the countries of the Global South. Explain why there is this diversity, and yet, what brings cohesiveness to the Global South?

There is diversity due to the geographic range and historical context of each state. Many of them were colonized by European nations and now find their common ground in the recovery of their economy and development. The cohesiveness of the global South also stems from their cooperation to attempt to make the Global North fulfill agreements and treaties promised to them

What are the differences between Non-Aligned Movement and G-77?

The Non-Aligned movement has the priority of developing their nations. It is not very structured and meets only every 18 months to discuss in committees. They have few statements on the environment. G-77 is a group of Global South states that aims to provide means for these states to develop. They are more structured, have permanent infrastructure, and negotiate within the framework of the UN.

What are the “Southern” motivations, frustrations, and challenges with regard to GEP? Most importantly, what are its goals?

The Southern motivations are to seek to enter the dialogue when it comes to environmental and developmental programs within global debate, especially with the Global North. They want to have adequate environmental spaces in the future and modify global economic relations. They feel the Global North dominates in both sectors and often feel overwhelmed with agreements, especially those that have not been fulfilled by the North.

What allows the South to continue the North-South dialogue in environmental politics?

The sheer number of nations considered part of the Global South gives them an advantage numbers wise.

Should the North increase or intensify its help to the South?

Yes, especially if the North promised aid. Additionally the North was allowed to develop without much environmental restriction, so if those are to be required or highly encouraged, the states with the capital to help the Global South to reach these goals would help bridge this gap.

In what ways are the interests of developing countries and industrialized countries at odds over GEP? In what sense are they compatible?

Developing countries want the opportunity to develop like the northern countries did. The South feels more restrictions put in place that hinder development that the North did not have to endure. They also feel as if their voice is not considered. Both want to embrace these ideals, but it is a struggle for the developing economies.

Name at least 3 types of international NGOs? Explain the differences in resource base and membership. Why are environmental NGOs are an important but not a sufficient force in GEP?

INGO – An international NGO such as Oxfam.

ENGO – An environmental NGO like

RINGO – A religious international NGO such as Catholic Relief Services.

“Mutual solution, mutually agreed upon”—explain the quote, give an example.

Make it increasingly cost-prohibitive to participate in activities that take away resources. An example is parking costing more per hour and eventually long-term fines.