Media Representations and Stereotypes

What is the media gaze?

The way the media presents society in particular ways, shaping how audiences view social groups, often through stereotypes.

What is symbolic annihilation?

When the media ignores, underrepresents, distorts or stereotypes certain groups, making them seem invisible or unimportant and reinforcing inequality.

What did Gerbner and Gross argue about media representation?

Some social groups are omitted, underrepresented or condemned in the media.

Why is media representation particularly important in a media-saturated society?

People may rely heavily on media images to form their understanding of social groups, making media representations seem like reality.

How does Neo-Marxism explain media representations?

The media is controlled by the dominant capitalist class and helps maintain cultural hegemony by controlling the production of ideas.

How are the upper classes typically represented in the media?

They are often presented as desirable.

How are the middle classes typically represented in the media?

They are often presented as normal and may be overrepresented.

How are the working classes typically represented in the media?

They may be presented as undesirable or in a simplified and stereotypical way.

How is the underclass typically represented in the media?

They may be made invisible or negatively stigmatised.

How do pluralists explain stereotypes in the media?

The media acts like a mirror, reflecting the existing beliefs and prejudices of audiences rather than simply imposing stereotypes on them.

How are ethnic minorities often represented in mainstream media?

They are often ghettoised, meaning they are marginalised, overlooked, voiceless or mainly featured in specialised or minority-interest programmes.

What did Cumberbatch find about ethnic minority representation?

Only around 1 in 7 roles were played by an ethnic minority character.

What did Malik find about African-Caribbean representation?

African-Caribbean people were less likely to appear in heavyweight roles or as lead presenters.

What did Bey and others find about black representation?

Black people were less likely than white people to be shown in professional roles.

What did the Reuters Institute find about ethnic diversity among UK journalists?

Around 6% of journalists across UK newsrooms did not identify as white, compared with around 18% of the general population.

What did the Reuters Institute find about black editors?

None of Britain's top 10 print, digital or broadcast outlets had a black editor-in-chief.

What did the Reuters Institute find about black reporters in major UK newspapers?

It was common for none of the front pages of the 11 most widely read UK newspapers, including their websites, to feature a story by a black reporter.

What argument is made that the British media is not racist?

The Society of Editors has argued that the British press is not racist or bigoted.

What did Tony Sewell conclude about institutional racism?

He concluded that British society was not institutionally racist, including the media.

What did Cottle argue about media representations of ethnicity?

Media representations can encourage audiences to develop an 'us versus them' understanding of ethnic groups.

What did the Glasgow Media Group argue about ethnic representation?

The white media establishment helps maintain bourgeois cultural hegemony by promoting racist stereotypes.

How can racist media representations support Marxist interests?

They can divide white and ethnic minority workers against each other, using divide and rule to maintain bourgeois dominance.

How can equal opportunities policies improve ethnic representation?

They can increase the representation of ethnic minority groups in media organisations and content.

How does ethnic minority use of new media challenge negative representations?

Ethnic minority groups are adopting new media quickly, allowing them to create and share their own representations.

How can growing acceptance of non-white cultures challenge negative media representations?

Increasing appreciation of non-white cultures can encourage more diverse and positive representations.

How were women represented in the 2012 newspaper study?

Women were often misrepresented, their voices were omitted and harmful stereotypes were promoted.

How did newspapers focus on women's appearance?

They often focused on women's physical appearance rather than their skills, knowledge or achievements.

How can sexualised media content contribute to the objectification of women?

It can present women primarily as sexual objects rather than as individuals with skills, knowledge and abilities.

How can sexism in the media affect women's participation in society?

Systematic sexism can negatively affect women's participation in public life and their access to justice when experiencing violence.

What did Tuchman and others argue about women and symbolic annihilation?

Women experience symbolic annihilation because they are underrepresented, misrepresented or negatively represented in the media.

What did Martis and Atau argue about women's representation?

Few media stories focus on women's achievements, expertise or abilities outside the home or motherhood.

What does condemnation mean in relation to symbolic annihilation?

Depicting a group negatively by portraying its members as inferior, evil or possessing negative characteristics.

How can women experience condemnation in the media?

They may be portrayed negatively or as inferior, reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes.

How were male characters represented in the 2020 study 'If He Can See It, Will He Be It?'?

They were less likely to show emotions, more likely to take risks, less likely to have parents on screen, and more likely to be perpetrators and victims of violence.

How can media representations of men reinforce traditional masculinity?

By presenting men as emotionally tough, risk-taking and associated with violence.

How can audiences challenge gender stereotypes?

Audiences have free will and can reject or reinterpret stereotypical media representations.

How do transgressive female characters challenge gender stereotypes?

They break traditional expectations of how women should behave and can challenge conventional femininity.

How does the 'new man' challenge traditional masculinity?

The new man is represented as more caring, emotionally expressive and involved in traditionally feminine roles.

How does the metrosexual challenge traditional masculinity?

The metrosexual challenges traditional masculinity through greater emphasis on appearance, fashion and grooming.

How can the new man and metrosexual challenge hegemonic masculinity?

They provide alternative representations of masculinity that challenge traditional or toxic masculine stereotypes.

How are children generally represented in the media?

They are generally represented positively, often as cute, brilliant, brave or modern.

How are children represented in advertising?

They are often represented as consumers of toys, games and other products.

What did Gordon argue about representations of children?

Children are sometimes presented as victims.

What did Aries argue about childhood?

Childhood is presented as a distinct stage of life.

How are adolescents generally represented in the media?

Their representations are often negative, with the media sometimes failing to discuss issues that genuinely affect them.

How can young people challenge stereotypes through new media?

Young people can use texting, social media, YouTube and other platforms to create their own representations and voices.

What did Cohen argue about media representations of adolescents?

Young people are often represented as 'folk devils' as part of moral panics.

What is a moral panic in relation to media representations of young people?

A situation where society and the media exaggerate or fear the perceived threat posed by a particular group, such as young people.

What examples of moral panics involving young people are given?

The Mods and Rockers in the 1960s and concerns about teenage mental health and social media in the 2020s.

How are elderly people typically represented in the media?

They tend to be represented in a one-dimensional and stereotypical way.

What did Carr and Fiske find about elderly characters on US television?

Only around 1.5% of characters were elderly, most appeared in minor roles and they were often used for comic relief.

How were elderly characters often portrayed according to Carr and Fiske?

They were often portrayed as having ineffective mental, physical and sexual capacities.

How can new media challenge age stereotypes?

Young people can create their own representations rather than relying on traditional media stereotypes, and other age groups may increasingly do the same.

How does the 'grey pound' challenge negative representations of older people?

The spending power of older people has increased their economic importance, encouraging media organisations to target them as consumers.

What does the 'grey pound' refer to?

The significant spending power of older generations.

What does Tom Shakespeare argue about disability?

Disability is socially constructed, meaning many problems faced by disabled people result from society's attitudes rather than simply from their physical or mental condition.

Why is the media important in shaping attitudes towards disability?

Many people learn about disability through socialisation and media representations rather than through personal experience.

What did Cumberbatch find about disability representation on popular television?

Only around 2.5% of people on popular television programmes were portrayed as disabled.

How are disabled people often visually represented in television and film?

Media representations often use obvious physical cues to signal to audiences that a character is disabled.

What did Feller and others find about mental health representation on prime-time television?

Mental health conditions were often presented as a threat, with around 63% shown in a negative light.

How is disability represented in news media?

Around 1 in 5 articles about disability use very negative language, including labels such as 'scroungers', 'cheats' and 'skivers'.

What recurring stereotypes of disabled people did Barnes identify?

Disabled people are often portrayed as pathetic, evil or incapable.

How does the media's portrayal of disability reinforce stereotypes?

Repeated negative or limited representations can make stereotypes appear normal and leave them unchallenged.

How have representations of disability improved?

There has been progress in media representations, particularly through the visibility and presentation of disabled athletes in events such as the Paralympics.

How might pluralists explain negative representations of disability?

They may argue that media representations reflect dominant societal attitudes that view disability as dysfunctional.

What does the pluralist argument about disability imply?

Changing media representations may require wider changes in society's attitudes towards disability.

How is sexuality socially constructed in the media?

The media helps shape ideas about sexuality, often from a heteronormative perspective.

What is heteronormativity in media representation?

The assumption that heterosexuality is the normal or standard form of sexuality.

What is the male gaze?

The representation of women from a perspective that encourages audiences, particularly men, to view women as sexual objects.

How can the male gaze socialise young men?

It can encourage young men to view women primarily as sexual objects.

How have representations of men changed in relation to sexualisation?

Men are increasingly represented as sexual objects and are subject to greater physical scrutiny.

What did McRobbie argue about representations of men?

Men are increasingly experiencing the same physical scrutiny and sexualisation that women have historically experienced.

Why might media organisations have historically represented homosexuality negatively?

Fear of losing profits from investors, advertisers and audiences may have encouraged media organisations to avoid positive representations of homosexuality.

How has homosexuality historically been represented in some news media?

LGBTQ+ people have sometimes been portrayed as sinful, wicked, unnatural or deviant.

What did Bachelor find about LGBTQ+ characters?

They were often shown as a source of anxiety or as targets of teasing and bullying.

What three categories did Craig identify in representations of homosexuality?

Campness, macho representations and deviance.

How is 'campness' used to represent homosexuality?

Homosexual characters may be exaggerated or portrayed for comic effect.

How is homosexuality represented through 'macho' stereotypes?

Homosexual characters may be portrayed through exaggerated masculinity.

How is homosexuality represented through 'deviance'?

Homosexuality may be portrayed as immoral, unnatural or socially unacceptable.

How can negative representations of LGBTQ+ people be examples of symbolic annihilation?

They can distort, condemn or stereotype LGBTQ+ people rather than representing them accurately and positively.

How have representations of homosexuality changed?

There has been growing acceptance and tolerance of diverse sexual orientations, and traditional negative representations have become less dominant.

How has new media improved LGBTQ+ representation?

It gives LGBTQ+ people their own platforms to create representations, communicate, form communities and provide support.

What is the 'pink pound'?

The significant spending power of gay and lesbian consumers.

How does the 'pink pound' influence media representations?

Media companies increasingly target LGBTQ+ consumers through advertising because the community represents a large and potentially affluent market.

How does the pink pound provide an economic reason for more positive LGBTQ+ representation?

Media companies have a financial incentive to represent and target LGBTQ+ audiences positively.

What is the overall Marxist explanation of stereotypical media representations?

The media is controlled by the ruling class and representations can reinforce dominant ideology and maintain existing inequalities.

What is the overall pluralist explanation of stereotypical media representations?

The media reflects the existing beliefs and prejudices of audiences rather than simply imposing stereotypes on them.

How can new media challenge symbolic annihilation?

Groups can create and distribute their own representations, giving previously marginalised groups greater control over their own image.

What is the overall evaluation of media stereotypes?

Although stereotypes remain widespread, greater diversity, new media, equal opportunities policies and changing audience attitudes can challenge and reduce stereotypical representations.