PLX 111 Mid term review

What are the 4 different ways to define a city? 

• Physical space (Buildings, infrastructure, neighbourhoods) 

• social space  (communities) 

• Economic hub ( trade, jobs) 

• Cultural arena(art, music, festivals, creativity) 

According to geographers like Walter Christaller, what defines a city?

A city is a central place concentrating services, trade, and flows of people (Central Place Theory).

How does Edward Glaeser (economist) define a city?

As a cluster of economic activity, where proximity reduces costs and boosts productivity.

How does Louis Wirth (sociologist) define a city?

As a large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals focusing on diversity and social structures.

What is Kevin Lynch’s view (urban planner) of a city?

A designed settlement, shaped by planning decisions around land use, transportation, housing, and public space. (e.g. 15-minute city theory) 

How does Lewis Mumford (historian/cultural scholar) conceptualize the city?

As a geographic plexus, economic organization, institutional process, theater of social action, and aesthetic symbol of collective unity.

What is the UN’s technical/demographic definition of a city?

An area with ≥50,000 inhabitants in dense grid cells (≥1,500 residents/km²). Also distinguishes between city proper, urban agglomeration, and metropolitan area.

Why are cities increasingly important globally?

They concentrate challenges (climate change, inequality) and generate solutions through density, innovation, and cultural exchange. Over 55% of people live in cities (expected to rise to 68% by 2050).

Name the 6 unique traits that differentiate a city from other settlements?

• Scale & density: Tokyo’s innovation under pressure

• Innovation hubs: Berlin’s counterculture reuse

• Civic identity: Barcelona’s architecture as symbol

• Symbolic role: NYC’s “city that never sleeps” ethos

• Creative ecosystems: LA’s film/media concentration

• Cultural diversity: Toronto’s multicultural identity

What are four major global challenges cities face today?

1. Climate change & sustainability (e.g. Delhi’s pollution, flooding)

2. Inequality & housing crisis (e.g. Toronto housing shortage, Mumbai slums)

3. Migration & belonging (e.g. Paris identity politics, Toronto barriers)

4. Global competition for talent and branding (e.g. Dubai, Singapore)

What is the main idea of the reading “What is a city”

Modern cities are saturated with commercial distractions. Engaging with cities meaningfully requires practicing noticing the overlooked through five exercises.

What is “attention theft” in the urban context?

Cities are shaped by forces that monetize attention (ads, digital notifications), making it harder to engage with authentic urban life.

Define “Allokataplixis.”

A sense of wonder at the “other”- cultivating awe even in familiar urban settings.

What are “ghosts and ruins” in cities?

Remnants of past urban layers (e.g. abandoned payphones, old highways) that reveal historical and social change.

What are the five Urban Attentiveness Practices?

1. Look for ghosts & ruins -  traces of past uses

2. Get there the hard way - navigate without GPS

3. Eat somewhere dubious - explore overlooked spaces

4. Read the plaque - uncover hidden histories

5. Follow the quiet -  use soundscapes to notice design & atmosphere

Why is experiencing the city considered a “political act”?

Cities show some things (e.g. festivals) and hide others (e.g. homelessness). How we notice reflects power and privilege

How can senses beyond sight shape urban experience?

• Smell: Mexico City street food

• Sound: Istanbul’s call to prayer, temple bells in India

• Touch: textures of architecture, infrastructure

Why focus on everyday people and rhythms?

Observing commuters, markets, and performers reveals the social fabric and diversity of the city (e.g. Tokyo’s Shibuya Crossing).

How does history manifest in urban spaces?

Through plaques, ruins, old street patterns, and layered urban forms (e.g. Rome’s ancient-medieval-modern layers).

Why is studying urban history important?

Because cities are the backbone of North American civilization. Their design, growth, and decline shape economic opportunities, social interactions, and cultural life. Urban history helps explain why cities look and function the way they do today.

How did early North American cities grow?

• Influenced by European models

• Adopted grid systems for organized growth (e.g. NYC Commissioners’ Plan 1811)

• Located near rivers and ports to anchor trade (e.g. Philadelphia)

• Used public squares for civic/social life (e.g. Market Square, Boston Common 1634)

What role did public squares play in early cities?

They served as markets, meeting places, and civic spaces, inspired by European plazas.

How did industrialization reshape North American cities?

Created immigrant neighbourhoods (Little Italy, Chinatown, Jewish quarters) while attracting rural and international migrants for factory jobs

• Led to population explosions, overcrowding, and poor sanitation and produced tenements and slums near factories

How did transit shape urban growth in the industrial era?

Streetcars, elevated trains, and subways enabled commuting, allowing cities to expand outward (e.g. Toronto streetcar suburbs, Boston subway, Chicago ‘L’).

What problems were early planning movements responding to?

Overcrowding, pollution, chaotic streets from industrialization.

What was the City Beautiful Movement?

(1900–1920) A planning movement emphasizing Health, Beauty, and Function through parks, monumental spaces, and organized boulevards.

Which plans embodied City Beautiful ideals?

Chicago Burnham Plan – wide streets, lakefront, parks

Washington D.C. monumental core – cohesive civic spaces

What was the significance of the 1916 NYC Zoning Ordinance?

It was one of the first zoning laws, separating residential, commercial, and industrial uses to improve health, safety, and order.

What factors transformed cities and suburbs after WWII?

• GI Bill and affordable mortgages (suburban boom)

• Modernist planning ideals (zoning & functional separation)

• Highway construction (Interstate Highway Act 1956)

• Automobile prioritization

What was Levittown and why was it significant?

First mass-produced American suburb, model for postwar suburbanization with single-family homes, lawns, and cul-de-sacs.

What is “Towers in the Park” and why did it fail?

Modernist high-rise + green space model (inspired by Le Corbusier). Failed due to poor maintenance, social isolation, and poverty concentration (e.g. Pruitt–Igoe, demolished 1972).

Who was Robert Moses?

“Master builder” of mid-20th-century New York. Advocated for highways, bridges, and urban renewal, often displacing communities (e.g. Lower Manhattan Expressway).

Who was Jane Jacobs and what did she advocate for?

Author of The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Promoted mixed-use, walkable neighborhoods, short blocks, community life, and “eyes on the street.” She led community movements to stop Moses’s projects.

What demographic shifts contributed to urban decline?

• White flight to suburbs (helped by exclusionary mortgage policies)

• Great Migration of African Americans to northern cities -  segregation and concentrated poverty

• Cultural resilience emerged (e.g. Motown in Detroit’s South Side)

What economic shifts caused urban decline?

Deindustrialization led to job losses, disinvestment, declining tax revenue, and deteriorating services.

What is the “Donut Hole” phenomenon?

Urban cores hollowed out as suburbs expanded—downtowns became depopulated, stagnant, and deteriorated.

How did cities adapt during the Information Age?

Shifted from manufacturing to knowledge & tech economies. Investment in art districts, waterfronts, universities

• Cities like Toronto, Boston (Route 128), and NYC pivoted to finance, media, and culture to stay competitive.

Why did policymakers turn to culture and creativity to revitalize cities?

Because culture, design, and innovation became key drivers of economic growth and urban vitality.

What strategies define the Creative City model?

• Attract residents through arts, culture, creative industries

• Convert industrial areas into cultural districts

• Encourage mixed-use development and pedestrian-friendly environments

• Support local entrepreneurship

How does Richard Florida define creativity?

“The ability to create meaningful new forms,” combining novelty, utility, and surprise."

What are examples of creativity beyond major inventions?

• Original invention: personal computer

• Incremental innovation: smartphone apps

• Cultural creation: digital music, animation

What are the 3 T’s of Creativity

1. Technology – innovation hubs (e.g. Silicon Valley)

2. Talent – attracting skilled people

3. Tolerance – open, diverse, inclusive cities foster creativity 

How are cities competing through culture today?

Through festivals, museums, street art, food scenes, and embracing social shifts (casual work culture, diversity, individual expression).

What factors drove the shift from industrial to creative economies?

The need to attract talent, investment, and innovation as well as deindustrialization, globalization and urban competition

How do creativity and knowledge drive modern cities?

They are the main sources of productivity and problem-solving, driving economic, social, and cultural growth.

What distinguishes traditional cities from creative cities?

Traditional cities leverage natural advantages (coal, steel, cheap labour); focus on infrastructure. Creative cities leverage brainpower and innovation; balance hard infrastructure with soft features (interactions, culture, mindsets).

Who originated the Creative City idea and when?

Charles Landry in the 1990s–2000s.

What is the key idea behind Charles Landry’s Creative City concept?

Mobilize creativity across governance, culture, and business; view cities as ecosystems of ideas, not just investment containers.

Whose theory complements Landry’s work?

Richard Florida’s Creative Class theory.

What are the three broad classes in creative cities under Creative Class theory?

1. Working Class – physical labour (manufacturing, construction, transport)

2. Service Class – routine, low-autonomy service jobs (retail, food service, clerical, care work)

3. Creative Class – intellectual & creative work (innovation, design, cultural production)

Which thinkers laid the groundwork for Creative Class theory?

• Peter Drucker & Fritz Machlup (1960s) – knowledge workers

• Daniel Bell – post-industrial meritocratic class

• Erik Olin Wright – professional-managerial class

• Robert Reich – symbolic analysts (manipulate ideas/symbols)

• Paul Fussell – “X group” of independent-minded creatives rejecting hierarchy

What are the two components of the Creative Class?

1. Super-Creative Core – scientists, engineers, professors, artists, designers, filmmakers, cultural figures. They produce widely usable new forms and engage in problem-finding.

2. Creative Professionals – lawyers, doctors, managers, analysts, consultants, tech specialists. They solve complex problems using specialized knowledge.

What values define the Creative Class?

• Individuality & self-expression – independence, nonconformity

• Meritocracy – talent and effort valued (but risks ignoring structural inequality)

• Diversity & openness – preference for tolerant, inclusive environments

How does the Creative Class drive cities?

Acts as an engine of economic growth while driving innovation, problem-solving, and new idea generation (Concentration = higher productivity, growth, resilience)

How did the Creative Class fare during economic crises?

• 2008–09 Financial Crisis: Creative Class unemployment peaked at 4%, compared to 9% (Service) and 15% (Working)

• COVID-19: Service/manual jobs hit hardest; creative/knowledge jobs adapted to remote work

Why is talent attraction important for creative cities?

Creative workers are mobile; they choose cities with culture, diversity, and amenities, creating a self-reinforcing cycle: creativity attracts talent,  talent drives growth.

Why is the Creative Class more adaptable to technological change?

Skills in problem-finding, symbolic/idea-based work, and human creativity and harder to automate than routine service or manual work

What are some challenges associated with Creative Class strategies?

• Elitism & gentrification risks

• Neglect of non-creative labour

• Persistent inequalities (e.g. gender wage gap: men earn 40% more; racial disparities in job share)

• Risk of shallow urban experiences if cities focus only on branding

What is urban agglomeration?

The clustering of people, firms, and activities in a city, producing economic, social, and cultural benefits.

What are agglomeration economies?

• External economies of scale – lower costs through shared infrastructure & proximity

• Localization economies – industry-specific clustering (e.g. Silicon Valley for tech)

• Urbanization economies – diverse industries in large cities (e.g. NYC finance + media + fashion)

Why does the Creative Class thrive in agglomeration economies?

Dense resources & networks. Knowledge spillovers and collaboration. Cultural amenities, diversity, openness, vibrant urban life

What is human capital theory (Gary Becker)?

Cities grow when they have concentrations of skilled, educated workers who are more productive and earn higher wages.

What is social capital theory (Robert Putnam)?

Growth is fostered by networks, trust, and norms that enable cooperation.

• Bonding capital: within groups

• Bridging capital: between diverse groups

• Linking capital: between citizens & institutions

What is creative capital (Florida & Landry)?

Creativity itself is a key driver of urban success - beyond infrastructure, human, or social capital.

What happened when cities relied only on redevelopment in the 1980s–1990s?

Projects attracted investment but ignored talent & human capital which created commercially attractive but socially hollow downtowns. Failed to retain or attract creative talent -  unsustainable growth

Why is the creative city model seen as a better strategy?

Big capital projects are necessary but insufficient. Lasting resilience comes from arts, culture, design, quality of place, and inclusive innovation networks. Emphasizes people, culture, and creativity over top-down redevelopment

What are the four key dimensions that define Toronto as a creative city?

Urban governance, funding priorities (public + private), identity (diversity, heritage, global positioning), and city branding.

When was Toronto founded and what was its original name?

Founded in 1793 as the Town of York on strategic trade and transportation routes.

When did York become Toronto and why was this significant?

In 1834, York was renamed Toronto and became the capital of Upper Canada.

What drove Toronto’s industrialization in the mid-19th century?

Growth of railways, port activity, and manufacturing.

How did Toronto’s population and demographics change by the late 19th century?

Population grew from a few thousand to tens of thousands; major waves of Irish, British, and German settlers arrived.

What sectors rose in Toronto during the early 1900s?

Finance, manufacturing, and media industries.

What cultural developments took place between the 1960s–1980s?

Emergence as a cultural hub with theatres, museums, and music venues.

What shift occurred in Toronto’s economy during the late 20th century?

Shifted from manufacturing to services, finance, tech, and creative industries.

What four factors converged in the early 2000s to create “a perfect storm” for Toronto’s cultural strategy?

Economic restructuring, global competition, demographic shifts, and political will.

Why was economic restructuring significant?

Toronto had to shift from traditional industries to services, tech, knowledge, and creative sectors while redefining its global identity

How did global competition pressure Toronto?

Other cities were branding themselves as “creative,” forcing Toronto to strengthen its identity and competitiveness.

Who played a major political role in advancing cultural agendas during the cultural shift period in Toronto?

Mayor David Miller and municipal leaders.

What role did community advocacy play in the cultural shift in Toronto?

Artists, cultural workers, and civic groups pushed for investment and participated in consultations to build legitimacy.

When was the Culture Plan for the Creative City officially adopted?

June 24–26, 2003.

What principles guided the Culture Plan?

Culture as a cornerstone of urban health, inclusivity, diversity, participation, and vibrancy - drawing on Landry and Florida’s theories.

What were the three themes of Toronto’s Culture Plan to enhance its creative position?

Cultural Renaissance, Integrating Diversity, and Attracting Youth.

What did the Cultural Renaissance involve?

$233M funding for major institutions along a cultural corridor, launching 2006 as “Year of Creativity.”

What were the impacts of the 2003 Culture Plan?

Raised Toronto’s global profile, spurred a cultural “renaissance,” expanded TIFF and festivals, and laid the foundation for future plans like Culture Connects (2025–2035).

What are the four priorities of Culture Connects?

Culture Everywhere, Culture for All, Culture for the Future, and Culture Beyond Our Borders.

What is the goal of “Culture Everywhere”?

To achieve 1 million sq. ft. of new cultural space in underserved neighbourhoods over 10 years.

What is the goal of “Culture for All”?

To guarantee at least one free cultural experience per neighbourhood per month.

What is the aim of “Culture for the Future”?

To invest $35M over 10 years to build a resilient cultural sector.

What is the purpose of “Culture Beyond Our Borders”?

Promote Toronto globally through 1,000 creative exports and artist exchange projects.

What roles do federal, provincial, and municipal governments play in cultural planning?

• Federal: Funds major institutions and national arts initiatives.

• Provincial: Supports infrastructure and arts organizations.

• Municipal: Develops plans, funds programs, manages agencies and grants.

What is urban branding?

Creating narratives/images to attract tourists, talent, and investment—similar to corporate branding.

What are common features of “Creative City” branding?

Buzzing street life, diversity, art scenes, nightlife, iconic spaces, education hubs, and mega-events.

How did Turin shift from “Italy’s Detroit” to a creative city?

Through economic diversification, cultural festivals, architectural redevelopments, and global events like the 2006 Winter Olympics.

What were the limits of Turin’s branding strategy?

Superficial diversity portrayal, culture as consumption, lingering Fordist identity.

What were key branding campaigns in Toronto’s history?

“Discover the Feeling” (1984), “Toronto Unlimited” (2004), “You Belong Here” (2007), and “The Views Are Different Here” (2017).

What risks accompany creative city strategies?

Gentrification, elitism, “serial reproduction” of branding, and culture as a commodified product

What opportunities exist when creative policies are rooted locally?

They can build pride, attract tourism, and foster genuine innovation.

What three qualities are essential for building a creative city?

Authenticity, inclusivity, and sustainability.

How do Toronto and Turin illustrate different approaches?

Toronto focuses on diversity and policy-driven investment; Turin emphasizes event-led rebranding from an industrial past.

What is Richard Florida’s central argument in “The Rise of the Creative Class”

Argues that the key engine of urban economic growth is creativity. Cities that attract and retain the “Creative Class” including artists, tech experts, designers, scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs, will grow faster than others.