Ciceros early career

Where and when was Cicero born?

Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC in Arpinum, around 100 km south of Rome.

Why was Arpinum significant for Cicero’s career?

Arpinum had received Roman citizenship in 188 BC and its people had already adopted Latin, showing the increasing assimilation of Italian communities that made Cicero’s political career possible.

How did the assimilation of Italian communities help Cicero?

The expansion of Roman citizenship in Italy during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC allowed talented men from outside Rome, such as Cicero, to enter Roman politics.

Why was Cicero not considered traditionally Roman?

Although a Roman citizen, Cicero was from Arpinum rather than Rome itself and was conscious that he lacked the traditional background of Rome’s elite families.

Why was Cicero self-conscious about being from Arpinum?

As a novus homo, he was aware that he lacked the ancestral political connections and status of Rome’s traditional aristocracy.

Why was bilingualism important for the Roman elite?

Knowledge of both Greek and Latin was considered essential for being cultured because Greek language and literature were highly valued among educated Romans.

Why did Roman elites prefer Greek for private correspondence?

Greek was considered more sophisticated and subtle than Latin, making it the preferred language for intellectual and private communication among elites.

How did Greek culture influence Roman upper-class society?

Greek philosophy, literature and education heavily shaped elite Roman culture, particularly ideas about rhetoric and political thought.

Why was Cicero educated in Greek rhetoric?

Most leading teachers of rhetoric in Rome were Greek, and mastery of Greek education was essential for elite intellectual development.

How did Cicero contribute to Roman intellectual culture?

He translated Greek philosophical ideas into Latin, creating terminology that allowed more Romans to access Greek philosophy.

Why was Cicero nicknamed “the little Greek boy”?

As a youth, Cicero studied Greek so intensely that he gained this nickname because of his enthusiasm for Greek culture.

What was Cicero’s family background?

His family were domi nobiles (local gentry) from Arpinum but lacked senatorial connections.

What does domi nobiles mean?

"Local nobles" or local gentry who held social status in their community but did not belong to Rome’s ruling senatorial elite.

Why did Cicero’s lack of senatorial connections matter?

As a novus homo, he lacked the traditional political networks of noble families and had to build his career through talent, alliances and reputation.

What connection did Cicero have to Gaius Marius?

Cicero was distantly related to Gaius Marius, the leader of the populares.

Why was Cicero’s connection to Marius not always beneficial?

After Marius’ defeat, association with the populares could have damaged Cicero’s political prospects.

What was Cicero’s father’s social status?

His father was a wealthy equestrian with strong Roman connections.

Why did Cicero’s father not pursue a political career?

His father was a semi-invalid and devoted himself mainly to study rather than public life.

What was Cicero’s mother called?

His mother was Helvia, described in Quintus’ letter as a thrifty housewife.

Where did Cicero’s name come from?

The name Cicero came from cicer, meaning chickpea.

What was the story behind Cicero’s name according to Plutarch?

An ancestor had a chickpea-shaped nasal cleft, which led to the family name Cicero.

Why did Cicero refuse to change his name?

Although the name was considered unattractive or “deprecatory,” Cicero believed he would make it more famous than names such as Scaurus or Catulus.

What does Cicero’s refusal to change his name reveal about him?

It shows his confidence, ambition and determination to create his own reputation despite lacking an aristocratic background.

How was Cicero described as a student?

Plutarch describes him as an extremely talented student with exceptional intellectual ability.

Who taught Cicero Roman law?

Cicero studied Roman law under Quintus Mucius Scaevola, one of the most respected legal figures of the time.

Why was studying under Scaevola significant for Cicero?

It gave Cicero valuable legal training and association with an important Roman intellectual and political figure.

Who later studied law under Cicero?

Young lawyers such as Marcus Caelius Rufus later studied under Cicero.

Which patrons supported Cicero’s early career?

Marcus Aemilius Scaurus and Lucius Licinius Crassus supported Cicero as examples of the ideal statesman and orator.

Why were Scaurus and Crassus important influences on Cicero?

They represented the combination of political leadership and rhetorical skill that Cicero aimed to achieve.

Who were Cicero’s fellow students?

His fellow students included Gaius Marius Minor, Servius Sulpicius Rufus and Titus Pomponius Atticus.

Who was Servius Sulpicius Rufus?

Servius Sulpicius Rufus was a fellow student who became a highly respected lawyer and was considered legally superior to Cicero.

Who was Atticus and why was he important to Cicero?

Titus Pomponius Atticus was Cicero’s lifelong friend, whom Cicero called his “alter ego” because of their close relationship.

What does alter ego mean?

"Another self"—Cicero used the phrase to describe Atticus as someone who deeply understood and complemented him.

What literary interests did Cicero have as a young man?

He experimented with poetry, translated Homer and translated Aratus’ Phaenomena.

Why was Cicero’s translation of Aratus’ Phaenomena significant?

It later influenced Virgil’s Georgics, showing Cicero’s impact on Roman literary culture.

When did Cicero become interested in philosophy?

During the late 90s to early 80s BC, Cicero developed a strong interest in philosophy.

Why did Cicero study philosophy?

He wanted to make Greek philosophical ideas accessible to Romans and create Latin philosophical terminology.

Who was the first philosopher Cicero met?

Cicero first met Phaedrus, an Epicurean philosopher, around 91 BC while accompanied by Atticus.

What philosophical school did Phaedrus belong to?

Phaedrus was an Epicurean philosopher.

How did Atticus and Cicero differ philosophically?

Atticus remained an Epicurean, while Cicero did not adopt Epicurean philosophy.

Who did Cicero study under in 87 BC?

Cicero studied under Philo of Larissa, the head of Plato’s Academy.

How did Cicero view Plato?

Cicero called Plato his “God” because he admired Plato’s moral ideas and political seriousness.

What aspects of Plato did Cicero admire?

He admired Plato’s emphasis on morality and serious political thought.

What part of Plato’s philosophy did Cicero reject?

Cicero rejected Plato’s Theory of Ideas (Forms).

How did Cicero’s education prepare him for politics?

His training in rhetoric, law, Greek philosophy and elite networks provided the skills needed for a successful political career as a novus homo.

Why was Cicero’s education unusual for a novus homo?

Despite lacking aristocratic ancestry, he gained an elite education in rhetoric, law and philosophy that allowed him to compete with Rome’s traditional nobility.

How could historians interpret Cicero’s early career?

Cicero’s rise demonstrates the increasing opportunities available to talented Italians after Roman citizenship expansion, while also showing the challenges faced by outsiders entering Rome’s elite political world.

Met Diodotus, a Stoic philosopher, who influenced Cicero’s philosophical development.

How did Stoicism influence Cicero?

Stoicism matched Roman values of discipline, self-control and duty, leading Cicero to adopt a modified form of Stoicism.

Who was Diodotus and what was his relationship with Cicero?

Diodotus was a Stoic philosopher who lived with Cicero until his death and influenced Cicero’s philosophical thinking.

What was Cicero’s childhood ambition?

Cicero aimed “to be best, and far to excel the others,” possibly quoting Euripides, showing his early ambition for greatness.

What does Cicero’s childhood ambition reveal about him?

It demonstrates his desire for exceptional achievement and his determination to overcome his outsider status as a novus homo.

Why was Cicero nicknamed “Punic Boot”?

The nickname suggested regal ambition similar to Hannibal, reflecting perceptions of Cicero’s desire for greatness.

When did Cicero join the Roman army?

Cicero joined the army in 89 BC during the Social War.

Who did Cicero serve under during the Social War?

Cicero served under the consul Pompeius Strabo.

Who did Cicero later serve under after Pompeius Strabo?

Cicero later served under Sulla.

Which political faction did Cicero initially support in the 90s BC?

Cicero supported the populares.

How did Sulla’s march on Rome affect Cicero’s political position?

In 88 BC, Sulla seized Rome, Marius fled to Africa and Cicero’s political position shifted away from supporting the populares.

Who did Cicero marry?

Cicero married Terentia, who came from an influential family.

How was Cicero introduced to Sulla after Sulla’s victory?

Cicero was introduced to Sulla through Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great).

What did Cicero allegedly say about receiving a statue of Marius from Sulla?

“Why do you send me a statue of Marius? You know I am a pacifist?” showing Cicero’s attempt to distance himself from Marian politics.

When did Cicero begin his legal career?

Cicero began his legal career between 83 and 81 BC.

What was Cicero’s first major legal case?

Cicero defended Publius Quinctius in a dispute over land rights.

Why was Cicero’s defence of Publius Quinctius important?

The case helped establish Cicero’s reputation as a lawyer because he successfully argued that accusations were invalid due to the absence of a contract.

Why did Cicero’s confidence increase after the Quinctius case?

The success demonstrated his ability as an advocate and strengthened his reputation.

Who was Sextus Roscius?

Sextus Roscius was a Roman citizen accused of murdering his father in a famous case defended by Cicero in 80 BC.

Why was the defence of Sextus Roscius dangerous for Cicero?

The case challenged powerful figures connected to Sulla, including his freedman Chrysogonus.

Who was Chrysogonus?

Chrysogonus was Sulla’s freedman who was accused by Cicero of manipulating the proscription system to seize Roscius’ property.

What happened in the case of Sextus Roscius?

Cicero successfully defended Roscius against a murder charge and gained major political prestige.

Who did Cicero suggest was responsible for the murder of Sextus Roscius?

He suggested the powerful Baebii family were responsible.

Why was Cicero’s victory in the Roscius case significant?

It established him as a skilled orator willing to challenge powerful individuals despite political risks.

Who supported Cicero during the Roscius case?

His brother Quintus, cousin Lucius and probably Servius Sulpicius Rufus supported him.

Why did Cicero travel to Athens in 80–79 BC?

He travelled to study philosophy and rhetoric and met his lifelong friend Atticus again.

What did Apollonius say about Cicero’s oratory?

Apollonius described Cicero as “the most perfect of all the orators at Rome.”

Where else did Cicero study after Athens?

Cicero travelled to Asia Minor and Rhodes to meet philosophers and improve his rhetorical skills.

Who was Cicero’s teacher in Rhodes?

Cicero studied under Apollonius Molon.

How did Molon influence Cicero’s oratory?

Molon refined Cicero’s style by teaching him disciplined, controlled and powerful rhetoric.

Who was murdered in the Sextus Roscius case?

Sextus Roscius the Elder was murdered.

Who was accused of murdering Sextus Roscius the Elder?

His son, Sextus Roscius the Younger, was accused.

Who were the real suspects in the murder of Sextus Roscius?

The Roscii of Ameria were suspected of arranging the murder.

How was Chrysogonus involved in the murder of Sextus Roscius?

Chrysogonus placed the dead Sextus Roscius on the proscription lists to seize his property.

Where was Sextus Roscius the Younger when his father was murdered?

He was in Ameria on his farms.

Where was Titus Roscius Magnus during the murder?

He was in Rome.

Where was Sextus Roscius the Elder murdered?

He was returning from dinner near the paths of Pallacina.

How did news of the murder reach Ameria?

Mallius Glaucia, an impoverished freedman connected with Magnus, brought the news.

Why was the delivery of the murder news suspicious?

The news reached Ameria at dawn despite the murder occurring at night, with a rider travelling 56 miles in 10 hours carrying a bloody sword.

What happened to Sextus Roscius’ farms after his death?

Chrysogonus took control of his 13 valuable farms, many near the River Tiber.

Why was Sextus Roscius’ son unable to protect his inheritance?

He was not suspicious because his father was well known in Rome and the murder was hidden from him.

How was Titus Roscius Magnus involved in the Roscius case?

He acted as an agent of Chrysogonus, removed Roscius from his home before funeral rights were complete and sold the property.

What happened when the delegation from Ameria approached Sulla?

They were accepted, but Chrysogonus persuaded Sulla to grant him what he wanted.

What was promised to Capito regarding the Roscius farms?

Capito was promised that the farms would not be returned to Sextus Roscius the Younger.

Why did Sextus Roscius flee to Rome?

He fled for protection and sought help from Caecilius, old friends who sheltered him.

Why was Sextus Roscius considered brave?

His loyalty and courage placed him at risk of being included on the proscription lists while still alive.

What was the result of Cicero’s defence of Sextus Roscius?

Sextus Roscius was acquitted and Cicero won the case.

What punishment would Sextus Roscius have faced if convicted?

He would have received poena cullei, the punishment of the sack.

What was poena cullei?

A Roman execution punishment where the condemned person was placed in a sack with animals and thrown into the River Tiber.

Why was the Roscius case a turning point in Cicero’s career?

It established him as a major advocate and demonstrated his willingness to challenge powerful figures.

How did Cicero portray the two Roscii in his speech?

He portrayed them as jealous relatives who wanted control of Sextus Roscius’ 13 farms.

How did Cicero portray Chrysogonus?

He portrayed Chrysogonus as greedy and corrupt for exploiting the proscription system to seize property.

Who did Cicero appeal to during the Roscius speech?

He appealed to farmers, jurors, praetors, fathers and sons by making the case relatable to different groups.