AP Bio Final Exam

Macromolecules

Large molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes sugars and starches.

Monosaccharides

The simplest form of carbohydrates; single sugar molecules like glucose and fructose.

Polysaccharides

Complex carbohydrates made of long chains of monosaccharides; examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Glycogenesis

The process of forming glycogen from glucose for energy storage.

Glycogenolysis

The breakdown of glycogen into glucose for energy.

Lipids

Hydrophobic organic compounds, including fats, oils, and steroids.

Fatty acids

Building blocks of lipids; long hydrocarbon chains that can be saturated or unsaturated.

Triglycerides

A type of lipid used for long-term energy storage, composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Proteins

Large biomolecules made of amino acids; crucial for structure, function, and regulation in the body.

Amino acids

Organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins.

Nucleic Acids

Biomolecules such as DNA and RNA that store and transmit genetic information.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids, consisting of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of translating mRNA into proteins at the ribosome.

Cell Cycle

The series of phases that a cell goes through leading to its division and replication.

Mitosis

The process of nuclear division that results in two daughter nuclei.

Cell Respiration

The metabolic process that converts biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.

Glycolysis

The first step of cellular respiration, breaking glucose down into pyruvate.

Krebs Cycle

A sequence of reactions by which most living organisms convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

An organelle that synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER).

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport.

Ribosomes

Molecular machines responsible for protein synthesis.

Lysosomes

Organelles that contain digestive enzymes to break down waste.

Plasma Membrane

The selective barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances in the cell.

Signal Transduction

The process by which a cell responds to signals from outside its environment.

Autocrine signaling

A form of cell signaling in which a cell targets itself.

Endocrine signaling

Hormonal signals that travel through the bloodstream to target distant cells.

Gene Expression

The process through which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products.

Alleles

Different versions of a gene that may encode for different traits.

Homozygous

Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.

Heterozygous

Having two different alleles for a particular gene.

Punnett Square

A grid used to predict genetic outcomes of a cross.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the main energy carrier in cells.