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What are macromolecules?
Large, complex, organic molecules
-Includes carbonhydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
-Anabolic, macromolecules are all created from smaller subunits
Reasons why water is required in our bodies
-Solvent to dissolve and transports salts, food particles and gases
-Regulates and transports temperatures
-Water increase permeability and improve diffusion rates
-Water cleanses and lubricates body tissues
-Water supports and protects organs
What is organic material structure
Matter that is derived from carbon backbone(carbon chains)
What are inorganic compounds
Compounds that aren’t carbon chain(typically only have one carbon)
What is a polymer
Repeating units that make up macromolecules
What are monomers
Small subunits that connect together to make up polymer
polymerization
Process of joining together many monomers to create a polynomer
What is dehydration synthesis
Anabolic reaction that is done through removing a water molecule to bond molecules together
-Anabolic reactions are endothermic
What is hydrolysis
Adding water to a substance to break apart the molecules. This is a catabolic reaction.
-Catabolic reactions are exothermic
What are carbohydrates?
-Molecules that contain carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
-AKA sugars
-Can be classified as simple sugars or starches(polysaaccharides)
-Carbs are energy sources
What are simple sugars
one or two individual sugar units
-monosaccharides
-disaccharides
What are the 3 different categories of carbohydrates
-Monosaccharides
-Disaccharide
-Polysaccharide
What are monosaccharides?
Carbs that contain only one sugar unit, is a simple sugar
-a monomer
disaccharide
carbs that contain only two sugar units, is also a simple sugar
-technically a dinomer
polysaccharides aka starches
Mutiple sugar units(3+ sugar units)
-Made up of many monosaccharides
-Made through dehyration synthesis
Complex sugars
Released in boiling water
What are the two tests for carbohyddrates
-Benedict’s test
-Iodine test
What is a reducing sugaar
glucose/fructose- simple sugar
How does benedicts test work
-Quantitative test that uses benedicts reagent, in which when adding certain compounds within the solution where shift the colour of the solution
-Identifies reducing sugars such as glucose and lactose
-Colour shifts within the solution represent the percent of reducing sugars in the sample
Blue 0%
Light green <0.5%
Greenhish 0.5-1.0%
Yellowish 1.0-1.5%
Orangish red 1.5-2%
Brick red >2%
How does iodine test works
Identifies starches(polysaccharides)
-It is a Qualitative test
Uses iodine to show if starches is present
Yellow-brown shows theres no starches/negative
Blue-black shows theres starches/positive
What determines polysaccharides shape and function
The way they are arranged determines their shape and function
What is glycogen
Carbohydrate that is stored and reserved when needed, because we dont use them at first
Insulin
Proteins that help absorbs carbohydrates within our blood
What happens when your blood sugars become too low
When your blood levels become too low glycogen is released from your liver to even out your blood sugar levels
What happens when your blood sugars become too high
When your blood levels become too high insulin is released to help cells absorb glucose
What is cellulose?
helps things move;cell wall in plants
What is fiber
Helps release the waste within our body
What are lipids?
Lipids consist of glycerol(3 carbon chain) and fatty acids which varies
-Aka fats or oils
-insoluble in water
What are the functions of lipids
-energy storage
-cushions delicate organs
-carries fat soluble vitamins
-makes up sex hormones
-insulation warmth
-increase buoyancy
Different types of lipids
-Triglycerides
-Phosphilipid
-Waxes
-Steroids
Triglycerides
-”true” fats/oils you consume in your diet
-1 glycerol + 3 fatty → 1 triglyceride + 3 H2O
-Dehydration synthesis process since water is released
2 kind of fatty acids
Saturated and Unsaturated
Saturated fatty acids
-Comes from animals, becaus eonly single bonds within chain, MAXIMIZE HYDROGEN
Unsaturated fatty acids
-Usually liquid
-Double bonds
-healthier, and easier to break
Animal triglyceride
-Know as fats
-Solid
-Glycerol + 3 saturated fatty acids
Plants triglyceride
-Know as oils
-Liquid
-Glycerol + 3 unsaturated fatty acids
Phopholipids
-Lipids that make up the lipid bi-layer in the cell membrane
-Unique molecules because they have different properties on each side
Waxes
protective coating feathers. Furs and leaves
They are also formed through dehydration synthesis
Steroids
-Lipids makes up sex hormones as well as good and bad cholesterol
High density lipoprotein(HDL)
Good cholesterol is responsible for reducing your levels of bad cholesterol
-Takes bad cholesterol down to liver to be broken down
Low density lipid(LDL)
It is bad cholesterol and blocks you blood flow
Brown paper bag test
Its a test for lipids
AKA translucent test, if theres light that can penetrate through theres fat(lipids)
Proteins
-Makes up most cellular structures
-Formed from tiny amino acid put together in long chains
R group
Varies amino acid, interactions between R groups can cause changes in the shape of a protein(coil or twist)
What are proteins made out of
ELements such as C, H, O, N and sometimes S.
-Proteins are made out of amino acids and peptides
What are proteins
Polynomers made up of monomers called amino acids
what are peptides
Bonds within proteins/polypeptides
Whats a polypeptide
Molecule that has between 3 to 300 amino acids
What are molecules with more than 300 amino acids
Proteins!
How many amino acids can the body synthesize
11 out of the 20 amino acids, these amino acids are called non essential
What are essential amino acids
The other 9 amino acids that come from our diet
What are different actions proteins can undergo
-Denaturation
-Coagulation
-Deamination
What is denaturation
-Temporary change in protein shape caused by addition of heat, pH, or chemicals. Change is reversed when conditions return to normal
What is coagulation
Permanent change in protein shape. Caused by excessive heat, pH, or chemicals. The protein will never resume original shape even when conditions return to normal
What is deamination
Removal of Amino Acids from protein or polypeptide chain. This is a natural action during digestion
Biuret test
Test for proteins, is a qualitative and quantative test but using samples to describe change, which gather
Blue to purple, the bigger the molecule the more protein.
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acid make up DNA and RNA
-They contain phosphate, sugar, and nitrogen base
What are nucleotides
Monomers that make up nucleic acids
-Made up of 5 carbon sugar
-Phosphate
-Nitrgoen containing base
DNA
-Sugar phosphate back bone
-Sequence of bases that makes up the code determining our traits
Bonding
A with T
G with C
What are enzymes
Protein biological catalysts that increase reaction rates by reducing the amount of energy needed to start a reaction.
-Usually ends in an ase suffix
What is activation energy
Energy added at the beginning of a reaction to get reactants to proceed to form products
Homeostatic meaning
Ability to keep internal environment stable; to keep balance; setpoints
What is the homeostatic temperature in our bodies
37 degrees celcius, if the temperature was too high it would cause major biochemical problems that could be fatal.
What does enzyme allow
They allow reactions to take place at lower temperatures at faster rates by reducing the activation energy needed
Analyze data seen in photo
An uncatalyzed reaction requires higher activation energy than does a catalyzed reaction
-There is no difference in free energy between both reactions
Enzymes in relation with monomers and polynomers
Enzymes can either bind monomers together or break polynomers down into monomers
How does an enzyme work
Substrate enters active site, subtrate bonds to the active site, water is added or released in order to break apart or bind products. The products are thn released.
There are two theories regarding on how enzymes react
What are the two theories on how enzymes react
“Lock and key” and “induced fit”
What is the lock and key theory for enzymes
Only one enzyme for one shape of subtrate(exact geometry)
-Fits like a puzzle piece
What is the induced fit theory regarding enzymes
Active site alters slightly to fit closely related substrate shapes
-Changes shape slightly to make fit
How does temperature affect enzyme reaction
When temperature will from the homeostatic optimal, enzyme activity will decrease
-Most enzymes in the body(37 degree homeostatic optimal) will denature at 50 degrees ceasing reactions
How does pH affect enzymes
-Most enzymes(within the body) will operate the best at near neutral(pH 7). However enzyme pH preference is dependant on where it is found in the body.
If pH fluctuates too much from the homeostatic optimal enzymes will denature and reduce the turnover number
Turnover number
The efficiency of an enzyme/how many times enzyme can react with substrate to create product
How does enzyme concentration affect enzyme reaction
If the body produces or activates more enzymes, it will increase the turnover number, since the subtrates have a better chance of joining up with an enzyme
How does co enzyme and co factor concentration affect enzyme reaction
If the body has more co-enymes and co factor this improves enzyme reactions, because it allows for the greater ability to re-alter active sites so that new substrates can be wokred on
How does substrate concentration affect enzyme reaction
The more substrate will increase enzyme reaction rate, however works to a certain point(saturation)
Allosteric site
Place on an enzyme that is not the active site
-Substrate may bind with this place HOWEVER will change the shape of an enzyme and influencing its ability to be active
Kind of acts like a switch for the enzyme
Allosteric activity
Action involving the allosteric site
Allosteric activator
When an molecule binds to an activator site which activates the enzyme
Allosteric inhibitor
When a molecule binds with a inhibitor site where the active site is in the incorrect formation
How does product concentration affect enzyme activity
The more products, the less enzymes, the less product the more enzymes. This mechanism allows for the maximum efficiency depending on circumstances. This mechanism of which trying to reach a setpoint is called feedback inhibition(negative feedback)
What is feedback inhibition
A type of negative feedback, which is a corrective mechanism that slows down or stops a process.
What is negative feedback
Process that maintains balance by reducing or counteracting a change
What is competitive inhibitors
Substances that resemble substrates in shape but are not true subtrate. They bind to the active site and prevent true substrates from being worked on
Non-compeitive inhibitors
Substances that bind to the enzyme at a location other than the active siter. This alters the protein shape and indirectly affects the shape of the active site so that true subtrates cannot get on
