The Code of Hammurabi

Summary: pages 1-7

The text describes the rise of Hammurabi, an exalted prince chosen by the gods Anu and Bel to bring about righteousness and rule over Babylon. It highlights Hammurabi's achievements, conquests, and efforts to promote well-being, justice, and prosperity in various cities. The latter part of the text transitions to the Code of Laws, a set of legal provisions covering various situations, including contracts, debts, theft, agricultural practices, and penalties for crimes. The laws emphasize fairness, restitution, and proportional punishment, reflecting a detailed legal system in ancient Babylon. 

historical context: time period

The text is attributed to Hammurabi, the sixth king of the First Babylonian Dynasty, who ruled around 1792–1750 BCE. 

cultural context

This is an inscription from the Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest and most complete written legal codes. It provides insight into the society, governance, and justice system of ancient Mesopotamia. 

Anu and Bel

Anu is the Sublime, King of the Anunaki, and Bel is the lord of Heaven and Earth. They assigned dominion over earthly man to Marduk, the over-ruling son of Ea. 

hammurabi

The exalted prince mentioned in the text, called by Anu and Bel to bring about the rule of righteousness in the land. He is credited with the establishment of the Code of Hammurabi.

Founding of Babylon

Anu and Bel assigned Marduk to rule over mankind, leading to the foundation of Babylon, an everlasting kingdom with solid foundations likened to those of heaven and earth. 

Achievements of Hammurabi: Rebuilding cities

Hammurabi is credited with reestablishing cities like Eridu and renewing others such as Sippara and Larsa.

Achievements of Hammurabi: conquests

He conquered the four quarters of the world and made Babylon renowned.

achievements of Hammurabi: Cultural contributions:

Notable efforts include enriching Nippur, patronizing E-kur, purifying E-apsu, and paying devotions to Marduk in Saggil

protecting king:

Hammurabi is portrayed as the shield of the land, reuniting scattered inhabitants and providing protection. 

Wealth and prosperity

He enriched cities like Ur, Gish-shir-gal, and Dilbat, demonstrating concern for the well-being of his people.

Religious and Legal contributions: Devotion to the gods

Acknowledged as the beloved of gods like Shamash, Sin, and Nebo, Hammurabi is described as the divine king and successor of Sumula-il. 

Religious and Legal contributions: Code of Laws

The text transitions into the Code of Laws, outlining legal principles, punishments, and social regulations. This includes rules on ensnaring others, making false accusations, theft, and agricultural practices.

Legal code Highlights: Justice System

The text transitions into the Code of Laws, outlining legal principles, punishments, and social regulations. This includes rules on ensnaring others, making false accusations, theft, and agricultural practices.

property rights

Regulations concerning theft, property transactions, and contracts are detailed.

responsibilities

Laws address negligence, responsibilities of shepherds, and consequences for damage caused by individuals.

Commercial Transactions

Various laws focus on merchant-agent relationships, transactions, and consequences for fraudulent activities.

penalties and punishments: severity of punishments

Punishments are often severe, including death penalties for offenses like false accusations, stealing from temples, and breaking into houses.

Restitution

Some laws requite restitution for damges loss, or negligence

Social norms and ethics: Social order

Laws reflect a concern for maintaining social order, protecting the weak, and preventing injustice.

social norms and ethics: ethical conduct

The emphasis on righteousness, fear of God, and ruling by law suggests a moral and ethical foundation.

overall impression: leadership style

Hammurabi's leadership is portrayed as just, protective, and dedicated to the well-being of his people.

overall impression: legal legacy

The Code of Hammurabi represents an early attempt at codifying laws, reflecting a structured legal system in ancient Mesopotamia. 

Text Summary

The text begins with an account of the establishment of Babylon by Anu and Bel, and the assignment of dominion over earthly man to Marduk. It then introduces Hammurabi, the exalted prince, who is called upon by Anu and Bel to bring about the rule of righteousness, destroy the wicked, and ensure justice in the land. Hammurabi is praised for his achievements, conquests, and the well-being he brought to various cities. The latter part of the text transitions into the "Code of Laws," consisting of legal provisions covering various aspects of civil and criminal matters.

historical background

• Mention of Anu, Bel, Marduk, and Hammurabi indicates a connection to ancient Mesopotamian mythology and history. 

• Babylon's foundation and the establishment of a kingdom are emphasized. 

Hammurabi’s Achievements

• Hammurabi is portrayed as a just ruler who brought prosperity to cities, reestablished temples, and conquered territories. 

• Reference to divine support, particularly from gods like Shamash and Nebo. 

Code of Laws

• Detailed provisions addressing legal matters, emphasizing principles of justice and fairness. 

• Punishments for false accusations, theft, damage to property, and negligence. 

• Specific penalties for various offenses, including death, fines, or compensation. 

Economic and agricultural regulations

• Provisions regarding debt, loans, and interest. 

• Rules on agriculture, irrigation, and compensation for crop-related damages. 

legal procedures

• Procedures for resolving disputes, including the role of witnesses and evidence. 

• Consequences for judges making erroneous decisions. 

Social Order

• Protection of the weak against the strong. 

• Emphasis on the shepherd's duty, with penalties for negligence. 

Property rights and contracts

• Regulations on property ownership, transactions, and contracts. 

• Protection of rights for both creditors and debtors. 

Punishments

Severity of punishments, including death, reflects the emphasis on maintaining order and justice

Legal consequences

Recognition of legal consequences for actions, with specific penalties outlined for various offenses. 

Civic Duties

• Responsibilities of individuals in relation to communal well-being. 

• Civic duties include reporting crimes, compensating for damages, and cooperating with legal procedures. 

Commerce and Trade

• Provisions for transactions, disputes, and accountability in commercial activities. 

• Protection of merchants and regulations for agents. 

Social Norms

prescribed norms for tavern keepers, with severe consequences for involvement in conspiracies

Corrections and restitution

Focus on rectifying wrongs through restitution rather than purely punitive measures 

Overall impression part 2

The text provides insights into the socio-legal framework of ancient Babylon, highlighting the significance of justice, fairness, and the rule of law in maintaining social order and prosperity. The Code of Laws covers a wide range of civil and criminal matters, reflecting the complexities of governance and societal organization in that historical context. 

Pages 8-15 summary

The provided text is a selection from the ancient legal code known as the Code of Hammurabi. The summarized content includes various laws related to issues such as crimes, debts, family matters, property disputes, and punishments.

legal consequences for death of a prisoner

• If a prisoner dies in prison due to blows or maltreatment, the master of the prisoner must convict the merchant responsible before a judge. 

• Penalties vary based on the status of the victim: death penalty for a free-born victim's family or payment of gold for a slave victim. 

Debt and forced labour

• Individuals failing to meet debt claims may sell themselves, their family, or enter forced labor. 

• Slaves sold for forced labor can be subleased without objection. 

• If a maid servant is sold for money to settle a debt, the money must be repaid, and she shall be freed. 

Property Issues

• Laws regarding the storage of corn in another's house and compensation for any harm or theft. 

• Guidelines for transactions involving gold, silver, or other valuables, emphasizing the need for witnesses and contracts. 

marriage and family matters

• Various laws addressing marriage, adultery, divorce, and the treatment of wives. 

• Penalties for false accusations, with physical markings or even death as consequences. 

Inheritance and property division

• Rules regarding inheritance, dowries, and the division of property among family members. 

• Specific conditions for wives and children in case of separation or death. 

Adoption and parental rights

• Laws governing adoption, parental responsibilities, and the consequences of abandoning or disowning adopted children. 

• Penalties for children disowning their adoptive parents. 

Legal consequences for injuries

• The principle of "an eye for an eye" and compensation for injuries, including fines for causing harm to free-born individuals, freed men, and slaves. 

• Different penalties for injuries caused by physicians during medical procedures. 

Building and construction

Regulations for builders, including fees, consequences for faulty construction, and responsibilities for potential risks. 

other specific cases

• Laws concerning marking slaves, the role of physicians, and the consequences of deception.  

• This summary provides an overview of the Code of Hammurabi, emphasizing its diverse legal provisions covering various aspects of daily life in ancient Babylon. 

• These texts are excerpts from the Code of Ur-Nammu, one of the earliest known legal codes in human history, dating back to around 2100–2050 BCE in ancient Sumer.

Sections 116-129: various legal scenarios

• 116: Describes consequences if a prisoner dies in prison due to maltreatment. 

• 117: Deals with the situation where a person sells themselves or family members into forced labor to settle a debt. 

• 118: Discusses the treatment of slaves given away for forced labor. 

• 119: Covers the sale of a maid servant for debt repayment. 

• 120-121: Regulations on storing corn in someone else's house. 

• 122-124: Guidelines for lending and safeguarding valuables. 

• 125: Addresses the responsibility of the house owner if property is lost due to theft. 

• 126: Discusses false claims of lost goods and the need for an oath. 

Sections 127-141: marriage and family laws

• 127: Punishment for false accusations against a woman. 

• 128-139: Deals with various scenarios of marriage, separation, and divorce. 

• 140-141: Outlines the conditions for separation and the financial arrangements for the wife. 

• Sections 142-148: Family and Inheritance Laws 

• 142-143: Describes situations where a woman can leave her husband. 

• 144-147: Addresses issues related to multiple wives and their status. 

• 148: Details obligations if a husband abandons his diseased wife. 

sections 149-174 inheritance and property laws

• 149-151: Deals with inheritance and dowry in case of a wife's death. 

• 152-154: Concerns incestuous relationships and their consequences. 

• 155-156: Punishment for breaking marriage agreements. 

• 157-158: Consequences for incest with a mother. 

• 159-160: Addresses issues with chattels brought into a father-in-law's house. 

• 161-163: Deals with property division in case of a wife's death or divorce. 

• 164: Regulations for property division in the absence of repayment. 

• Sections 165-186: Adoption and Parental Rights 

• 165-166: Inheritance arrangements for adopted sons. 

• 167: Rules for dividing the estate based on maternal and paternal contributions. 

• 168-169: Conditions for putting a son out of the house. 

• 170-171: Inheritance rights of sons based on the acknowledgment of relationship. 

• 172: Punishment for denying adoptive parentage. 

• 173-174: Inheritance of dowry in case of the adopted mother's death. 

sections 175-227: Miscellaneous legal provisions

• 175-176: Rights of children born to a slave married to a free person. 

• 177-178: Inheritance rights and restrictions for temple-maids. 

• 179-183: Regulations on dowries and inheritance for various scenarios. 

• 184-189: Deals with various situations related to adoption. 

• 190: Punishment for not maintaining an adopted child. 

• 191-192: Conditions for disowning an adopted son. 

• 193-194: Consequences for deserting adoptive parents. 

• 195-203: Regulations on bodily harm and compensation. 

• 204-205: Punishment for a slave striking a free-born person. 

• 206-207: Compensation and consequences for wounding in a quarrel. 

• 208-219: Consequences for physician malpractice. 

• 220-225: Punishments for injury to animals. 

• 226-227: Punishments for deception involving slave markings. 

Sections 228-234: construction and property laws

• 228-229: Responsibilities and consequences for builders regarding house construction. 

• 230-231: Punishments for builders if a house collapse results in death. 

• 232-233: Obligations if a house is not properly constructed. 

• 234: Fee for shipbuilders. 

Pages 16-23 summary

The text consists of a collection of laws known as the Code of Hammurabi, attributed to Hammurabi, a Babylonian king. The laws cover various aspects of daily life, including contracts, property, and personal injury. For instance, it details the responsibilities of a shipbuilder if a boat is not properly constructed, the compensation a sailor must provide for damaging a rented boat, and the consequences for various offenses related to hiring and caring for animals. The epilogue emphasizes Hammurabi's role as a just ruler and warns against altering or disregarding the laws outlined in the text. The definitions at the end provide explanations for various terms, including the names of gods and locations in Mesopotamia 

Legal code context:

The text is a compilation of legal provisions, part of the code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest known written legal codes

Societal structure

Reflects a hierarchical society with regulations governing various aspects of life, commerce, and justice. 

Specific laws and regulations: shipbuilding and maritime laws

• Laws 235-237: Detail obligations of shipbuilders, sailors, and boat owners, covering responsibilities and compensation for damages. 

• Laws 238-240: Address compensation for shipwrecks and collisions, emphasizing justice and accountability. 

• Laws Related to Animals: 

• Laws 241-250: Establish rules for the treatment of oxen, covering accidents, mistreatment, and responsibilities in various scenarios. 

Specific laws and regulations: agricultural and labour laws

• Laws 253-267: Focus on agricultural and labor issues, dealing with theft, subletting, fraud by herdsman, and compensation for damages. 

• Laws on Threshing and Labor Contracts: 

• Laws 268-273: Outline regulations related to hiring services, including threshing, cart driving, and general labor, specifying wages and terms. 

Specific laws and regulations: maritime and trade laws

• Laws 274-277: Address issues related to hiring ships, specifying the cost and terms for various types of vessels. 

• Laws on Slave Purchase: 

• Laws 278-281: Discuss the purchase of slaves, detailing conditions for return and liability in case of disputes. 

The epilogue: Praise for Hammurabi’s rule

Describes Hammurabi as a just and wise ruler, emphasizing the establishment of righteous laws and the protection of subjects.

Curses for violators

Specifies severe consequences, invoking curses by various deities, for rulers who alter or violate the established laws.

Deity references

Several laws invoke deities like Shamash, Marduk, Ea, and others, linking divine authority to the legal system. 

Additional references

Several laws invoke deities like Shamash, Marduk, Ea, and others, linking divine authority to the legal system. 

Additional definitions

definitions provided for cities, temples, and various gods mentioned in teh text.

overall themes

• Emphasis on justice, accountability, and restitution for damages. 

• Connection between legal codes and divine authority. 

• A hierarchical society with regulations covering various aspects of life. 

Provisions: 235-251: Boat sailor, and ship related laws

• 235: Shipbuilder's responsibility to repair a boat if not made tight. 

• 236: Compensation for a wrecked boat due to a sailor's carelessness. 

• 237: Compensation for a wrecked boat provided with goods by the hirer. 

• 238: Payment for saving a ship from wreckage. 

• 239: Payment for hiring a sailor. 

• 240: Compensation for wrecking a ferryboat. 

• 241: Impressing an ox for forced labor requires payment. 

• 242-248: Various scenarios and compensations related to hiring and damaging oxen. 

• 249: If God causes harm to a hired ox, the hirer is not held responsible. 

• 250: No claim if someone pushes an ox and it dies on the street. 

provisions 251-282: oxen, field, and herdsman-related laws

• 251-252: Compensation for harm caused by a goring ox. 

• 253-255: Laws regarding hiring someone to tend a field. 

• 256-257: Payment for hiring a field laborer. 

• 258-268: Various scenarios and compensations related to hiring for threshing, laborers, and herdsmen. 

• 269-276: Laws regarding hiring boats and ships. 

• Provisions 277-281: Slave-related Laws 

• 277: Compensation for a diseased slave within a month. 

• 278: Liability of the seller if a third party claims a slave. 

• 279-281: Laws related to buying slaves from a foreign country. 

• Provisions 282: Consequences for a Slave Denying His Master 

• If a slave denies his master, the slave's ear is cut off. 

general overview

Hammurabi is portrayed as a wise and just ruler who established righteous laws for the benefit of his people. 

invocation of gods

The king attributes his wisdom and success to the gods, especially Marduk, Shamash, and Ea.

Divine blessings and curses

The text concludes with blessings for those who uphold the laws and curses for those who alter or disregard them.

legacy and future rulers

Future kings are urged to follow Hammurabi's laws for the prosperity and well-being of their lands.

definitions

• Various Mesopotamian cities, temples, and deities are mentioned, providing a glimpse into the religious and societal structure of the time. 

• This legal code reflects the societal norms, values, and the king's commitment to justice in ancient Mesopotamia. The epilogue emphasizes the enduring nature of Hammurabi's laws and the consequences for those who may seek to alter or ignore them.