AG Final Exam Review

Federalism

A system of government where power is shared between a central government and smaller political units (states, provinces).

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that government’s power is derived from the consent of the governed (the people).

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to examine laws and government actions to determine whether they are constitutional.

Separation of Powers

The division of government into different branches (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power.

Unitary Government

A system where all power is held by a single, central government.

Confederate Government

A system where smaller political units (states) hold most of the power, and the central government has limited authority.

Selective Incorporation

The process by which certain protections in the Bill of Rights are applied to the states via the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses.

Expressed Powers

Powers explicitly granted to the government by the Constitution.

Implied Powers

Powers not directly stated in the Constitution but inferred from the expressed powers.

Reserved Powers

Powers that are not specifically granted to the federal government nor denied to the states, and thus are reserved for the states.

Articles of Confederation

The first constitution of the United States, which created a weak central government and was later replaced by the current Constitution.

Ex Post Facto

A law that makes an act illegal retroactively; prohibited by the Constitution.

Denied Powers

Powers that are specifically prohibited to the federal government or the states by the Constitution.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both the federal government and state governments, such as taxing.

Habeas Corpus

The right of individuals to be brought before a court to ensure they are not unlawfully detained.

Supremacy Clause

A clause in the Constitution (Article VI) stating that the Constitution, laws made by the national government, and treaties are the supreme law of the land.

Republic

A form of government where representatives are elected by the people to make decisions on their behalf.

Federalist Papers

A series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay advocating for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, guaranteeing individual freedoms and rights.

Naturalization

The process by which an immigrant becomes a citizen of a country.

Plessy v. Ferguson

An 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.'

Poll Tax

A tax levied on voters, often used to disenfranchise African Americans in the South.

Marginalized

Groups or individuals who are pushed to the edge of society, often denied basic rights or access to opportunities.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Legislation aimed at eliminating racial discrimination in voting, particularly in the South.

Political Party

A group of individuals who organize to win elections and control government policies.

Plurality

The number of votes for a candidate that is more than any other candidate, but not necessarily a majority.

Bipartisan

Involving the cooperation of two political parties.

Unitary

A government system where all power is concentrated at the national level (opposite of federalism).

Federalists

Supporters of the U.S. Constitution who advocated for a strong central government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the U.S. Constitution who feared too much power would be given to the national government.

Representative Democracy

A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

Double Jeopardy

A legal principle that prevents a person from being tried twice for the same crime.

Brown v. Board of Education

A landmark 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Eminent Domain

The power of the government to take private property for public use, with compensation.

Disenfranchised

Denied the right to vote or participate in the political process.

Bicameral Congress

A legislature consisting of two chambers or houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Partisanship

Strong allegiance to one’s political party, often leading to a lack of cooperation across party lines.

Majority

More than half of the total votes or a group.

Incumbent

The current holder of an office or position.

Checks and Balances

A system in which each branch of government (executive, legislative, judicial) can limit the powers of the others to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Limited Government

A government whose powers are restricted by law or a constitution.

Federal Type Government

A system in which power is shared between a central government and state governments.

Enumerated Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution.

Rule of Law

The principle that all people and institutions, including the government, are subject to and accountable to law.

Commerce Clause

The clause in the Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states, and with Native American tribes.

Necessary and Proper (Elastic) Clause

Grants Congress the power to make all laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers.

Bill of Attainder

A law that punishes someone without a trial; prohibited by the Constitution.

Confederacy

A union of states or nations, often with limited central authority.

Ratification

The process of formally approving something, like the Constitution or an amendment.

Constitutional Convention

The 1787 meeting where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.

Petition Your Grievances

The right to formally complain to the government about injustices or wrongdoings.

Repealed

To revoke or annul a law or act.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

A law that ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

'Lame Duck' Period

The period between an election and the inauguration of a new president, when the outgoing president has limited power.

Chisholm v. Georgia

An 1793 Supreme Court case that allowed citizens to sue states in federal court.

Parties as 'Watchdogs'

The role of political parties, especially opposition parties, to monitor and criticize the actions of the party in power.

Equal Protection

The principle that laws must apply equally to all people, guaranteed by the 14th Amendment.

Incorporation

The application of the Bill of Rights to the states via the 14th Amendment.

Libertarians

People who believe in minimal government intervention in both personal and economic matters.

Moderates

Individuals or groups that fall between the extremes of political ideologies.

Primary Election

An election to choose a political party's candidate for a general election.

Impeachment

The process by which a sitting president or other federal official is charged with misconduct, leading to a trial to determine if they should be removed from office.

Veto

The power of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress.

Reapportion

The process of reallocating congressional seats among the states based on population changes.

Approving a Treaty

The process of the Senate ratifying international agreements made by the president.

Compromise

The process of reaching an agreement by making concessions on both sides.

Persuasion

The act of influencing others to accept a particular position or viewpoint.

Due Process

The fair treatment of individuals through the judicial system, guaranteed by the 5th and 14th Amendments.

Congressional Districts

Geographical areas within a state from which members of the House of Representatives are elected.

Green Party

A political party that emphasizes environmental issues, social justice, and nonviolence.

Democrats

A major political party that typically supports social programs, government regulation, and progressive policies.

Republicans

A major political party that generally advocates for limited government, free-market policies, and conservative social issues.

General Election

A nationwide election where voters choose among candidates for public office.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives.

Rider/Pork/X-Mas Ornaments

Provisions added to a bill that may not be related to the main purpose of the bill, often to benefit a legislator's constituents.

Congressional Budget Office

A federal agency that provides budget and economic information to Congress.

Census

The official count of the population, which determines representation in Congress.

Gerrymandering

The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to favor one political party.

Overriding a Veto

When Congress passes a bill into law despite the president’s veto, requiring a two-thirds majority in both houses.

Approving Presidential Appointments

The Senate's role in confirming presidential nominees for federal positions.

Negotiation

The process of reaching an agreement between parties through discussion.

Consensus Building

The process of finding common ground and mutual agreement among differing groups or individuals.

Oversight

The process of monitoring and reviewing the actions of the executive branch to ensure it is properly implementing laws and policies.

First Amendment

Protects the freedoms of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition.

Second Amendment

Protects the right to keep and bear arms.

Third Amendment

Prohibits the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent during peacetime.

Fourth Amendment

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures; warrants must be issued based on probable cause.

Fifth Amendment

Provides for the right to remain silent, double jeopardy protection, and due process rights.

Sixth Amendment

Guarantees the right to a fair and speedy trial, an impartial jury, and legal counsel.

Seventh Amendment

Ensures the right to a jury trial in civil cases.

Eighth Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail and fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

Ninth Amendment

States that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution does not deny or disparage other rights retained by the people.

Tenth Amendment

Affirms that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people.

Eleventh Amendment

Limits the ability of individuals to sue states in federal court.

Twelfth Amendment

Revises the procedure for electing the President and Vice President.

Thirteenth Amendment

Abolishes slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.

Fourteenth Amendment

Grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees equal protection and due process under the law.

Fifteenth Amendment

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Sixteenth Amendment

Authorizes the federal government to impose and collect income taxes.

Seventeenth Amendment

Establishes the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote.