IB Global Politics

state

self-governing political entity with sovereignty and characteristics that include territrory, population, organization and recognition. Universally, it is the highest political organization.

Failed State

A state characterized by social, political, and economic failure.

Common Characteristics of a Failed State

a central government too weak or ineffective to control its territory, non-provision of public services, widespread corruption and criminality, refugees and involuntary movement of populations, and sharp economic decline

Social Indicators of a Failed State

massive movement of refugees, demographic pressures (unsustainability)

Economic Indicators of a Failed State

uneven economic development, sharp economic decline

Political Indicators of a Failed State

criminalization, deligitimization of the state, deterioration of public services, violation of human rights, intervention of external states

Danger posed by Failed States on International System

- Transnational crime: criminal conduct in one country has an impact on another/several others
- a lack of contribution to the wellbeing and cooperation in the international system
- Tend to have over-dependency on foreign aid or peacekeeping missions
- when chaos prevails, terrorism, narcotics trade, weapons proliferation, and other form of organized crime tend to flourish

Real-life examples of Failed States

9/11 terrorist attacks on America by Afghanistan-based Al qaeda.
- In Somalia the weak central government was toppled by rebels in 1991. despite transitional government installed in 2004, they were unable to protect themselves without intervention of Kenyan forces. Also, Somalian pirates have been a threat to international shipping for years
-Civil war in Syria threatening to overrun Lebanon

Sovereignty

the most essential characteristic of an international state. It strongly implies political independence from any higher authority and suggests at least theoretical equality.

Sovereignty as absolute

One of the characteristics of sovereignty is that it is absolute. It is based on the very idea that it is unlimited and above all laws

Limitations to absolute Sovereignty

- International treaties and cooperation impose limits on sovereignty by their very nature, as they increase the co-dependency of a nation. An example of this is the Torrijos-Carter treaty signed in 1977, which gave the United States the right to intervene in Panama if they consider it to be at risk. This limits Panama's sovereignty as, despite being internationally recognized as a legitimate state, the United States still has the power to intervene within their borders, which limits their sovereignty.
- In the international system, NGO's that give unequal amounts of power to its member states also limit sovereignty. The very concept of collective security is a limitng factor on soveirgnty, as it encourages nations to be dependent on each other, not themselves. Also, the fact that the UN has a Security Council that can veto over other nations mean that these nations can impose thir sovereignty over other nations.

Realist view of Absolute Sovereignty

Accept and encourage absolute sovereingty, as reliance on other states would essentially take away from the power of the sovereign nation. They would argue that sovereignty also depends on the power of a nation. For example, the US invasion of Iraq in 2002, which they carried out without the support of the Security Council or UN, was a demostration of the liberating nature of power in the international system. It also showed that, Iraq had less power in the International System, they couldn't defend themselves from a breach in their sovereignty.

Liberalist view of Absolute Sovereignty

Accept the concept of collective security and international cooperation over absolute sovereignty. The very institutions that are constricting forces upon the sovereignty of nations, such as the UN, are products of Liberalist thought.

Development

a ype of growth or improvement of something, usually linked to economical factors. International development is seen as progress for the greater quality of life of people, and it encompasses issues like healthcare, education, poverty reduction, gender equiality, and economic stablity and self-sufficiency.

Modernization Theory of Development

This theory delineates a single, linear path to development, which is reflected in the transformation of Western countries from traditional, pre-industrial agrarian societies to modern, industrial, and mass consumption ones

Alternative View of Development

deals with six main ideas, but rejects the "one size fits all model proposed by the modernization theory of development. The nine ideas are:
- Humanistic view of poverty, emphadizing on poverty, fredom, and empowerment
- Self-reliance rather than reliance on wealthy states, international bodies or the market
- Ecological balance, sustainability, and conservation of "global commons"
- Social and cultural inclusion through respect of cultural diversity and interests of marginalized groups
- Local control through community action and democratic participation
- View that poverty stems from imbalances in global trading system and elsewhere

Why is foreign intervention helpful in the development of a country

- provides guidance and push start towards solig certain humanitarian, economic, and enviornmental issues the state may have.
- states have responsibility to protect their citizens from both inside and outside threats to their human rights.

Why foreign intervention is not helpful in development of countries

- No matter the inicial reason, countries are more often than not unable to avoid impericism and neo-colonial efforts
- Countries that recieve development aid become reliant on nations providing the aid
- It is an ideal that believes in the self-sacrifice of sovereign states when in reality intervention takes place for reasons of self-interest and power maximisation. (EX: US and UK claim to invade Iraq for WMD's, claim later found to be absolutely false now after this intervention, capitalist restraints have been imposed upon the country which constrains the countries ability to embark in actions that would benefit their inhabitants.)

Legitimacy

Politcial legitimacy is the popular acceptance of authority. It is consdered to be the basic condition for government, without which it will collapse. Sometimes it only takes a small-influential elite to render a natioin legitimate despite the regime being unpopulat (syria)

Constitution

A set of fundamental principles or established precedents accordinf to which a state or organization is governed.

Legitimacy in Democracies

In democracies, legitimacy is derived from popular sovereignty, and so the constitution of these states follow this doctrine. For example, the US constitution includes amendments forbidding the state from prohibiting the voting of citizens because of race or gender,

Other forms of legitimacy

Nations such as Saudi Arabia consider the source of legitimacy to derive from religion, or the divine right of kings.

Fragile and rising states and the lack of legitimacy:

Majority of people are not behind the state, yet these states have constitutions that allude to popular sovereignty. They claim to be legitimate because they have the support of the people, yet they don't

Main goals of the United Nations

- Maintain peace throughout the world
- Develop friendly relations amongst nations
- To help nations work together to improve the lives of poor people, to conquer hunger, disease and illiteracy, and to encourage respect for each other's rights and individual freedoms
- Be a center for harmonizing the actions of the nations to achieve goals

UN success in completion of goals:

- Maintaining peace in the world:
For: Unrealistic to believe it could prevent all wars, but it has been successful in negotiating peacful resolutions to conflicts, and has authorized the defense of countries from unprovoked attacks, such as South Korea. The UN has also been instrumental in the development of the concept of human rights, which was virtually nonexistent beforehand. Failures to intervene in human rights affairs have not been failures of the UN, but rather failures by its member states, like the US in the case of Rwanda.
Against: UN peacekeepers usually only come into conflict after thousand of civilians have been killed, and are sometimes unable or too late to act in certain situations, such as the Rwandan Genocide or their inability to intervene in Syria because of the Vetos of China and Russia. Also, UN resolutions have often been used as justification for wars, such as the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the "responsibility to protect". Research actually shows a rise in armed conflicts from 1945 and a plateau after the end of the cold war. Despite their development of human rights, the UN has often failed to protect them, as it stood by during the terrible Rwandan massacre, and has tolerated some of the worst dictatorships as part of its mebers

Power

... is a central concept in the study of global politics and a key focus of the course. ... can be seen as ability to effect change in the world and, rather than being viewed as a unitary or independent force, as an aspect of relations among people functioning within various social organizations. Contested relationships between people and groups of people dominate politics, particularly in this era of increased globalization, and so understanding the dynamics of ... plays a prominent and important role in understanding global politics.

Sovereignty

... characterises a state's independence, its control over territory and its ability to govern itself. How states use their sovereign power is at the heart of many important issues in global politics. Some theorists argue that ... power is increasingly being eroded by aspects of globalization such as global communication and trade, which states cannot always fully control. Others argue that ... states exercise a great deal of power when acting in their national interest and that this is unlikely
to change.

Legitimacy

... is a contested term providing the fundamental basis or rationale for all forms of governance. The most accepted contemporary form of ... is some form of democracy or constitutionalism whereby the governed have a defined and periodical opportunity to choose who they wish to exercise power over them.

Interdependence

For global politics, the concept of ... most often refers to the mutual reliance between and among groups, organizations, areas and states for access to goods and services that sustain living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a security dimension (such as defence arrangements) and, increasingly, a sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties). Globalization has increased ... , while often changing the relationships of power among the various actors engaged in global politics.

Human Rights

... are basic rights and entitlements which many argue one should be able to claim simply by virtue of being a human being. Many contemporary thinkers argue that they are essential for living a life of dignity, are inalienable, and are universal. The Universal Declaration of ... adopted by the United Nations in 1948 is recognized as the 17 beginning of the formal discussion of .... around the world.

Justice

There are a number of different interpretations of the term .... It is often closely associated with the idea of fairness and with each getting what he
or she deserves, although what is meant by desert is also itself contested. The term ... is also closely associated with rights and what individuals
can legitimately demand of one another or their government.

Liberty

The term ... refers to having freedom and autonomy. It is often divided into positive and negative ... ; negative ...is often defined as freedom from external coercion whereas positive ... is defined as a person having the freedom to carry out their own will. Some scholars reject this distinction and argue that in practice one cannot exist without the other.

Equality

Egalitarian theories are based on a concept of equality where all people, or groups of people, are seen to have the same intrinsic value. ... is therefore closely linked to justice and fairness, as egalitarians argue that
justice can only exist if there is equality

Development

... is a broad based and sustained increase in the standard of living and wellbeing of a level of social organization. Many consider it to involve increased income, better access to basic goods and services, improvements in education, healthcare and public health, well-functioning institutions, decreased inequality and reduced poverty and unemployment. It is typically measured through indicators such as longevity and literacy as well as income per head.

Globalization

... is a process by which local, regional and national economies, societies and cultures are becoming increasingly integrated and connected. The term refers to the reduction of barriers and borders, as goods, services and ideas flow more freely between different parts of the world and people. ... is a process which has been taking place for centuries but the pace has quickened in recent decades, facilitated by developments in global governance and technology and powered by cheap energy. By now, it is widely acknowledged that ... has both
benefits and drawbacks and that its proceeds are not evenly distributed

Inequality

... refers to the unequal access to resources that are needed to sustain life and communities. It is closely connected to discussions of power in a globalized world and who holds the rights to these resources and their proceeds. ... can be examined both as a phenomenon within and between societies.

Sustainability

Definitions of ... begin with the idea that development should meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. ... today has three fields of debate - environmental, sociopolitical and economic. In global politics,
mechanisms and incentives required for political institutions, economic actors and individuals to take a longer term and more inclusive wellbeing perspective in their decision-making are particularly important.

Peace

... is often defined as a state of both non-conflict and harmonious relations. Many also refer to ... as a state of non-conflict among. ... is the ultimate goal of many organizations that monitor and regulate the relationships among states.

Conflict

... is the dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals, groups or countries. This could be opposition over positions,
interests or values. Most theorists would distinguish between non-violent and violent ... In this distinction, non-violent ... can be a useful
mechanism for social change and transformation, while violent ... is harmful and asks for conflict resolution.

Violence

.... is often defined as physical or psychological force afflicted upon another being. In the context of global politics it could be seen as anything manmade that prevents someone from reaching their full potential (e.g. structural ....). This broader definition would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory practices that exclude entire
groups of people from accessing certain resources.

Non-Violence

... is the practice of advocating one's rights without physically harming the opponent. It often involves actively opposing the system that is
deemed to be unjust, through for example boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience. It is argued by theorists that blank can often
draw international attention to a conflict situation and that it could provide a fertile basis for post-conflict transformation.

Power

... is a central concept in the study of global politics and a key focus of the course. ... can be seen as ability to effect change in the world and, rather than being viewed as a unitary or independent force, as an aspect of relations among people functioning within various social organizations. Contested relationships between people and groups of people dominate politics, particularly in this era of increased globalization, and so understanding the dynamics of ... plays a prominent and important role in understanding global politics.

Sovereignty

... characterises a state's independence, its control over territory and its ability to govern itself. How states use their sovereign power is at the heart of many important issues in global politics. Some theorists argue that ... power is increasingly being eroded by aspects of globalization such as global communication and trade, which states cannot always fully control. Others argue that ... states exercise a great deal of power when acting in their national interest and that this is unlikely
to change.

Legitimacy

... is a contested term providing the fundamental basis or rationale for all forms of governance. The most accepted contemporary form of ... is some form of democracy or constitutionalism whereby the governed have a defined and periodical opportunity to choose who they wish to exercise power over them.

Interdependence

For global politics, the concept of ... most often refers to the mutual reliance between and among groups, organizations, areas and states for access to goods and services that sustain living arrangements. Often, this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a security dimension (such as defence arrangements) and, increasingly, a sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties). Globalization has increased ... , while often changing the relationships of power among the various actors engaged in global politics.

Human Rights

... are basic rights and entitlements which many argue one should be able to claim simply by virtue of being a human being. Many contemporary thinkers argue that they are essential for living a life of dignity, are inalienable, and are universal. The Universal Declaration of ... adopted by the United Nations in 1948 is recognized as the 17 beginning of the formal discussion of .... around the world.

Justice

There are a number of different interpretations of the term .... It is often closely associated with the idea of fairness and with each getting what he
or she deserves, although what is meant by desert is also itself contested. The term ... is also closely associated with rights and what individuals
can legitimately demand of one another or their government.

Liberty

The term ... refers to having freedom and autonomy. It is often divided into positive and negative ... ; negative ...is often defined as freedom from external coercion whereas positive ... is defined as a person having the freedom to carry out their own will. Some scholars reject this distinction and argue that in practice one cannot exist without the other.

Equality

Egalitarian theories are based on a concept of equality where all people, or groups of people, are seen to have the same intrinsic value. ... is therefore closely linked to justice and fairness, as egalitarians argue that
justice can only exist if there is equality

Development

... is a broad based and sustained increase in the standard of living and wellbeing of a level of social organization. Many consider it to involve increased income, better access to basic goods and services, improvements in education, healthcare and public health, well-functioning institutions, decreased inequality and reduced poverty and unemployment. It is typically measured through indicators such as longevity and literacy as well as income per head.

Globalization

... is a process by which local, regional and national economies, societies and cultures are becoming increasingly integrated and connected. The term refers to the reduction of barriers and borders, as goods, services and ideas flow more freely between different parts of the world and people. ... is a process which has been taking place for centuries but the pace has quickened in recent decades, facilitated by developments in global governance and technology and powered by cheap energy. By now, it is widely acknowledged that ... has both
benefits and drawbacks and that its proceeds are not evenly distributed

Inequality

... refers to the unequal access to resources that are needed to sustain life and communities. It is closely connected to discussions of power in a globalized world and who holds the rights to these resources and their proceeds. ... can be examined both as a phenomenon within and between societies.

Sustainability

Definitions of ... begin with the idea that development should meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. ... today has three fields of debate - environmental, sociopolitical and economic. In global politics,
mechanisms and incentives required for political institutions, economic actors and individuals to take a longer term and more inclusive wellbeing perspective in their decision-making are particularly important.

Peace

... is often defined as a state of both non-conflict and harmonious relations. Many also refer to ... as a state of non-conflict among. ... is the ultimate goal of many organizations that monitor and regulate the relationships among states.

Conflict

... is the dynamic process of actual or perceived opposition between individuals, groups or countries. This could be opposition over positions,
interests or values. Most theorists would distinguish between non-violent and violent ... In this distinction, non-violent ... can be a useful
mechanism for social change and transformation, while violent ... is harmful and asks for conflict resolution.

Violence

.... is often defined as physical or psychological force afflicted upon another being. In the context of global politics it could be seen as anything manmade that prevents someone from reaching their full potential (e.g. structural ....). This broader definition would encompass unequal distribution of power and discriminatory practices that exclude entire
groups of people from accessing certain resources.

Non-Violence

... is the practice of advocating one's rights without physically harming the opponent. It often involves actively opposing the system that is
deemed to be unjust, through for example boycotts, demonstrations and civil disobedience. It is argued by theorists that blank can often
draw international attention to a conflict situation and that it could provide a fertile basis for post-conflict transformation.

Global

In the context of the global politics course the term .... refers to events and trends that have far-reaching and long term impact across the globe, cutting across national identities and interests. Examples include, but are not limited to, globalization, the trend to towards democracy and welfare states, climate change, etc.

International

In the context of the global politics course the term .... refers to events and trends that have a narrower impact than global events and trends, but nonetheless have implications for several countries. Examples include, but are not limited to, various ... organisations, Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), Multinational Corporations (MNCs), international law, etc.

Regional

In the context of the global politics course the term ... refers to events and trends that have .... implications, limited to a particular geographic .... such as the Middle East, Latin America, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, etc. Examples include, but are not limited to, the European Union (EU), North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), The Arab League, etc

National

In the context of the global politics course the term... refers to events and trends which have a limited impact within the geographical boundaries of a particular country. Examples include, but are not limited to, economic crisis or economic change
in a particular state, political and legal reforms in a particular state, changes in governance of a particular state, questions of geographic borders, etc.

Local

In the context of the global politics course the term .... is used to refer to the geographic area where organisation is created and where culture is transmitted from one generation to the next. .... is defined by its inhabitants and their practices, and
so can represent a geographic space as small as a gated community or as large as a city or region.

Community

The idea of.... is one of the most debated concepts in the social sciences. Earlier,... were thought of as geographically based groups of people with similar interests, mutual support, and cultural traits. The most commonly held view was that.... must include not only spatial and ecological definitions, but institutional and emotional ones. Recently processes of globalization and rapid technological advancements have led social scientists to rethink standard definitions. Advances in communication technologies allow similar interests to be nurtured beyond physical boundaries, and the definition of .... has become intertwined with debates about globalization and the role and place of people within it.

Conservatism

.... are generally reluctant to change or reform things. Tradition is preferred. This, in theory, led to support for the concept of chivalry - which required that the
powerful defend the weak. The concept is known as nobelesse oblige. Those with power and wealth have obligations to the weak. In practice, this idea was ignored as often as it was observed.

Conservatism

... often support such institutions as family and church - though, once again, their interpretation of these values is traditional and may not be the same as the wider interpretation of others. For instance, ...generally oppose the concept of gay marriage, seeing the institution as something rooted in tradition and religion and therefore
something that should only concern a man and a woman together. ...fear that ill-conceived changes merely bring disruption.

Conservatism

Originally ... favoured rule by aristocracies. Now, in an age when the role of aristocracies is gone or much diminished, they continue to see hierarchies as important. In more recent times, ... have tended to favour big business interests and so they become natural allies of ... (another key term). ... are often strong nationalists

Conservatism

Important ... figures include Edmund Burke and Winston Churchill

Fascism

... is a radical form of ... (another term) that seeks not to preserve tradition but to reverse the developments of modern political thought and return to an idealized mythical past.

Fascism

... believe in militarist values, including discipline and devotion to powerful leaders - coming out of the experiences of soldiers in the war. They are anti-egalitarian and see the world in terms of hierarchies. Strength and power are supreme goals - for the
individual and the nation.

Fascism

... are strongly nativist or racist. They see the role of the state as to promote the interest of the nation - as they define it, in racial terms. They reject materialism and embrace mysticism - in their devotion to a leadership
principle and to the indefinable essence of their nation

Fascism

... sometimes support church values, or they may seek to replace them with national ones. Families are supported in theory, but in practice the state always comes first. The same can be said of their support of business interests.

Classical Liberal

This is the original form of Liberalism and it reflects the views of thinkers reacting to what they saw as the excessive control of conservative government.
They believe in laissez-faire policies, which restrict government involvement in political life to an absolute minimum.

Classical Liberal

... place individual freedom in all areas, economic or intellectual, foremost. They believe that the invisible hand of the market should be allowed to operate without
government restrictions or regulation. They feel that this creates efficiency. In the 19th century, such thinkers were often called Utilitarians.

Classical Liberal

In the 20th century, there were few ... remaining, as most came to accept some Socialist modifications to deal with the social inequalities that Classical Liberalisms brought. They are often described as Libertarians because of their commitment to individual liberties.

Classical Liberal

In the very late 20th and early 21st centuries there has been renewed interest in ... principles and a return to such notions as the desire for smaller government and
deregulation of businesses - as seen in Conservative Ontario, under Mike Harris and Liberal BC under Gordon Campbell.

Classical Liberal

What was once seen as a left wing ideology, now fits as a center to right wing one, as the political spectrum extended far to the left of ... Conservatives and ... often find themselves allies in the face of more leftist ideals.

Reform Liberalism

... originated because Classical Liberal policies and the process of industrialization led to huge social divisions
between the haves and have-nots. The desperation of the poor and the sympathies of those who worried about this cultural chasm led to increasing support for Socialism. This worried many Liberals who feared that the poor would be drawn increasingly to more radical and even violent forms of Socialism, and that this would lead to a social breakdown or even revolution.

Reform Liberalism

... came to believe that government could play a role in eliminating the worst of these problems. An example of this is the work of Liberal economist John Maynard Keynes, who felt that government spending could jump-start a faltering economy when recession or depression hit (and that governments should save for a rainy day when the economy boomed).

Reform Liberalism

Government regulation of businesses, while regrettable, might be necessary. Support policies to help the poor would require additional taxes - also regrettable, but absolutely needed. In short, .... borrowed from ... (another term) and modified Liberal thought.

Reform Liberalism

... is mainstream Liberal thought today, though there has been renewed interest in such ... (another term) ideas as tax-cutting and deregulation in recent years - as seen in the policies of Mike Harris in Ontario, Gordon Campbell in BC and George Bush in the United States.

Socialism

... is not a single movement, rather it is an umbrella term that covers a wide range of beliefs that are united in thinking that people should be equal and that wealth needs to be redistributed to make this possible - a Robin Hood principle, of taking from the rich to give to the poor.

Socialism

... believe that the state must promote this equality.

Socialism

Radical ...call for nationalization of all businesses on behalf of the workers. This requires dictatorial government to force it through.

Socialism

Moderate ... call for progressive taxation (taxing the rich and businesses at higher rates than others) to fund services for the poor. Social Democrats favour this gradualist approach to creating equality.

Socialism

Moderates generally favour a mixed economy of independent business and state controlled key services.

Socialism

Important ... thinkers include revolutionary radicals like Karl Marx and August Blanqui, as well as moderates like Robert Owen. Some moderates are almost indistinguishable from Reform Liberals. Britain's Tony Blair is a good example.

Marxism (Communism)

All ... are Socialists, but not all Socialists are ... .

Marxism (Communism)

Karl Marx was a Socialist, but his belief system has been so influential that we should treat Marxism separately from our discussion of Socialism.

Marxism (Communism)

Marx was a materialist; he believed that only things that can be seen and felt existed. Therefore he was an atheist; he did not believe in God. He said "religion is the opiate of the masses." Marx saw religion as a tool employed by the ruling classes to keep their
subjects down and to justify their domination.

Marxism (Communism)

Marx believed that economics drives history. He felt that what matters in history is who controls the means of production. He felt that history progressed through a series of class conflicts, in which the oppressed lower class eventually rises up to defeat and replace its masters. The final conflict would involve the proletariat (workers) overthrowing the bourgeoisie (Capitalists, or business owners). This would eventually lead to communism, when everyone is equal and the need for government would wither away.

Fascism

... came about as a reaction to the twin stresses of economic collapse and the popular support for radical socialism in the aftermath of World War I.

Fascism

... see the world in Social Darwinist terms - a struggle of survival of the fittest.

Fascism

...was begun by Benito Mussolini and further developed by Adolf Hitler. The term now has such negative connotations that few right-wingers use it to describe
themselves.

Classical Liberal

Ron Swanson, of "Parks and Recreation" would be considered a ...

Marxism (Communism)

... is a radical subset of Socialism.

Conservatism

.... are generally reluctant to change or reform things. Tradition is preferred. This, in theory, led to support for the concept of chivalry - which required that the
powerful defend the weak. The concept is known as nobelesse oblige. Those with power and wealth have obligations to the weak. In practice, this idea was ignored as often as it was observed.

Conservatism

... often support such institutions as family and church - though, once again, their interpretation of these values is traditional and may not be the same as the wider interpretation of others. For instance, ...generally oppose the concept of gay marriage, seeing the institution as something rooted in tradition and religion and therefore
something that should only concern a man and a woman together. ...fear that ill-conceived changes merely bring disruption.

Conservatism

Originally ... favoured rule by aristocracies. Now, in an age when the role of aristocracies is gone or much diminished, they continue to see hierarchies as important. In more recent times, ... have tended to favour big business interests and so they become natural allies of ... (another key term). ... are often strong nationalists

Conservatism

Important ... figures include Edmund Burke and Winston Churchill

Fascism

... is a radical form of ... (another term) that seeks not to preserve tradition but to reverse the developments of modern political thought and return to an idealized mythical past.