Motivation- What drives us

Motivation

An internal/external need or desire that energizes & directs behaviour

Instinct Theory

Inborn, unlearned, universal → instinct to behave a certain way in a particular scenario ; circular, labelling & doesn’t explain human motives ; e.g. women are maternal so they act maternally ∵ they are maternal

Drive-reduction Theory

Physiological need creates arousal ; e.g. when you are hungry you want to satisfy that hunger by eating

Homeostasis

Tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

Regulatory Drives

Helps preserve homeostasis (e.g. hunger, thirst, body temperature)

Non-regulatory Drives

Helps serve some other purpose other than homeostasis (e.g. sex)

Arousal Theory

Optimum level of arousal/stimulation to maximize performance

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Optimal performance is associated with moderate arousal ; too little → sleep, too much → stress

Task Dependent

Difficult tasks require low arousal ; Easy tasks require high arousal 

E.g. new driver can’t handle conversations, experienced can multitask

Psychological Theories

i) Incentive, ii) Cognitive

Incentive Theory

External states (e.g. goals, rewards, reinforcers) that complement drives (e.g. hunger)  that push you to behave a certain way

Incentive + Drives

Drive = Hunger , Incentive = Food Appearance ; 

weak drive + strong incentive / weak incentive + strong drive / strong drive & incentive = EAT ; weak drive + weak incentive = DON’T EAT

Cognitive Theory

Expectations & attributions ; how you feel towards the behaviour not just the physiological motivation

Expectations

What you want (e.g. a desired grade will make you work hard for it)

Attributions

What you think is responsible for the end goal (e.g. luck, hard work, etc.)

Biopsychosocial Theory

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

6 levels that moves from lower, basic needs to higher needs

Meet needs in order → not true

Not universally researched

Physiological Needs

Need to satisfy hunger & thirst

Safety Needs

Need to feel that the world is organized & predictable; need to feel safe

Belonging & Love Needs

Need to love & be loved, to belong & be accepted; need to avoid loneliness & separation

Esteem Needs

Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence & independence; need for recognition & respect from others

Self-Actualization Needs

Need to live up to our fullest & unique potential

Self-Transcendence Needs

Need to find meaning, purpose, communion & identity beyond the self

Five Drives

A newer approach to the drive-reduction theory

1. Regulatory

Promoting survival by maintaining homeostasis (e.g. hunger, thirst)

2. Safety

Avoid/escape dangerous situations (e.g. predator, risky environment)

3. Reproductive

Reproduce & ensure the nurture/ survival of offspring  (e.g. sex)

4. Social

Cooperate & seek approval from others (e.g. friendships, social ties)

5. Educative

Learn life-sustaining skills (e.g. play, exploration, curiosity)

Central Drive System

Hypothalamus is the hub of drives, connected to higher brain areas, input from organs, controls autonomic functions, specific drives to specific sets of neurons

Hunger Mechanism

Search for food; eat available food; obtain pleasure from food

Satiety Mechanisms

Stop eating; weaker than hunger mechanisms probably due to lack of food in the past

Food-O-Stat

Regulatory drive controlling the amount of food we eat based on need

Arcuate Nucleus

Part of the hypothalamus that controls appetite control

Appetite- Stimulating Neurons

Promote effects associated with increasing hunger (e.g. cravings)

Neuropeptidey

Most potent appetite-stimulating neurotransmitter produced by arcuate nucleus ; stimulates hunger even when full

Lateral Hypothalamus

Stimulates eating

A lesion here will make animals will starve

Appetite- Suppressing Neurons

Decreased effects of cravings, attention for food, etc.

Peptide YY

Appetite-suppressing hormone that impacts the arcuate nucleus ; released 15 mins after meal, peaks at 60 mins, can stay for 6 hours ; higher release of PYY in fit people than obese people

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Stops eating

A lesion here will make animals eat until they are twice their size

Appetite Suppression

After eating a large meal: ↑ body temp, ↑ blood glucose from carbs, stomach & intestinal distention,  PPY release ;

Activates hunger-suppression & inhibits hunger-stimulation

Leptin

Hormone that is affected by fat stores, reduces appetite or else the body would continuously eat to save energy

Obesity

Disorder that affects over 66% of Americans with health & social effects

Peripheral Activity

People who fidget more gain the least weight even when overfed ; 

leaner naturally move more, overweight sit still & conserve energy

Situational Influences

Viewing habits, presence of others, serving size, selection, nudges 

Sexual Response Cycle

Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution

Excitement

Increased heart rate, respiration & blood flow to genital areas

Plateau

Arousal continues at heightened levels; feeling that orgasm is imminent & inevitable

Orgasm

Muscle contractions; intense, pleasurable release of tension

Muscle contractions; intense, pleasurable release of tension

Body returns to unaroused state ; refractory period

Male Response Pattern

4 stages, prolonged refractory period that makes multiple orgasms difficult to occur

Female Response Pattern

3 patterns:

1. Similar to males, 2. Potential of multiple orgasms, 3. Non-orgasmic

Sexual Dysfunction

Problems that consistently impair arousal or functioning at any point of the cycle

Erectile Disorder

Inability for men to have/maintain an erection ; can be treated by viagra

Female Orgasmic Disorder

Distress over delayed, infrequent or absence of orgasms ; no treatment

Paraphilia

Atypical sexual interest or behaviour (fetishes)

Paraphilic Disorder

Paraphilia where a person experiences distress from sexual interest and involves risk/harm to others

Exhbitionist Disorder

Incident exposure, getting sexually aroused from fantasies or activities from exposing genitals to non-consenting individuals (e.g. flashing)

Biological Sex Factors

Hormones, Large surges/declines (prepuberty, decline with age, surgery or drugs),  Nervous system (brain & spinal cord - parasympathetic during initial & plateau) 

External Stimuli

Visual, auditory or written erotic material

Imagined Stimuli

Sexual fantasies

Performance Anxiety

Fear of being judged in connection with sexual activity that can lead to inability to perform because of this worry

Affiliation Need

Need to build & maintain relationships & to feel part of a group

Universal & associated with survival

Self-Determination Theory

3 important needs people attempt to satisfy: Competence, Autonomy (personal control), Relatedness (belonging)

Ostracism

Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups,

causes real pain detected by Anterior Cingulate Cortex

Achievement Motivation

Desire for significant accomplishment, mastery of skills or ideas, for control & for attaining a high standard

Task Difficulty

Tend to perform moderately difficult tasks & avoid easy tasks (no challenge) or hard tasks (low probability of success)

Extrinsic Motivation

Based on external rewards or threats of punishment

Intrinsic Motivation

Based on performing a behaviour effectively for its own sake ; more long lasting for striving towards a particular goal