6 - the impact of Napoleons rule on Europe

What event weakened the Second Coalition in 1799?

• withdrawal of Russia at the Battle of Zurich in September 1799 weakened the Second Coalition,
• Napoleon still faced opposition from Austria, Prussia, and Britain.

How did Napoleon's May 1800 campaign against Austria unfold?

Napoleon led 50,000 men through the Swiss Alps to attack Austrian forces south of the Alps. The march took longer than expected, and the Austrians were prepared, but the arrival of reserve troops secured a French victory.

What major battle in December 1800 led to Austria's surrender?

The Battle of Hohenlinden in December 1800, where a French army sent north of the Alps defeated the Austrians on their way to Vienna. This led Austria to sign the Treaty of Lunéville in February 1801, confirming French territorial gains, including land in Tuscany.

By early 1801, which country remained at war with France?

After Austria's surrender in February 1801, Britain was the only major power still at war with France.

What led to the peace of Amiens in 1802?

By 1802, both France and Britain were exhausted from the prolonged conflict,

Peace of Amiens (1802)

This brought a brief halt in fighting
neither side was done fighting because it lasted only around a year.

Why did the Peace of Amiens (1802) break down?

Neither France nor Britain fully honored the treaty—Napoleon remained in the United Provinces, while Britain refused to leave Malta—leading to renewed tensions

When did Britain declare war on France after the Peace of Amiens?

Britain declared war on France in May 1803, officially resuming hostilities

Why was Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain abandoned?

By summer 1805, a new threat emerged from Austria, forcing Napoleon to shift focus. Additionally, the British Navy made an invasion difficult.

What major naval battle ended Napoleon's hopes of challenging British naval power?

The Franco-Spanish fleet was decisively defeated by Admiral Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805, securing British naval dominance.

What major territorial change did Napoleon make in Italy by 1808?

Napoleon's successes culminated in the annexation of the Papal States, expanding his control over Italy.

What action did Napoleon take regarding Rome in February 1808?

He ordered the occupation of Rome, asserting French dominance over the Papacy.

How did Napoleon alter the Papal States in March 1808?

He annexed four papal provinces into the Kingdom of Italy, breaking diplomatic ties with the Pope.

• strengthened continental system
• symbolised shift of power from papacy to emperor

How did Napoleon professionalize the French army?

He transformed the Revolutionary Army into the Grande Armée, promoting officers based on merit, emphasizing training, and improving weaponry, such as lighter field artillery.

How did Napoleon ensure a large and steady supply of troops?

He introduced conscription in 1795, took advantage of France's large population, recruited from satellite states, and used propaganda and revolutionary fervor to inspire volunteers.

How was the French army reorganized in 1800 to improve effectiveness?

It was divided into smaller, independent units that advanced separately and met for battle, making the army more flexible and maneuverable. Soldiers also lived off the land, reducing dependence on supply lines.

What military experience and skills did Napoleon possess?

Napoleon was well-trained in warfare and tactics, had extensive battlefield experience, and used surprise strategies to outmaneuver opponents.

How did Napoleon's role as head of state contribute to his military success?

As commander-in-chief and head of state, he had absolute control over resources, could mobilize loans and supplies from satellite states, and personally directed military campaigns.

How did Napoleon's leadership style influence his troops?

He personally addressed his men, rewarded loyalty, and maintained high morale. His soldiers respected him, as seen during the 1812 Russian campaign and after his first abdication and return during the Hundred Days.

How did traditional European military strategies disadvantage Napoleon's enemies?

They relied on outdated tactics, moved in large, slow ranks, and were dependent on long supply lines, making them vulnerable to French mobility

How did the quality of enemy leadership compare to Napoleon's?

Generals were often appointed based on status rather than skill, leading to poor decision-making and ineffective strategies.

Why were enemy soldiers less effective than Napoleon's troops?

Many were conscripted and unmotivated, lacked strong leadership, and were easily demoralized when tricked into fighting in inferior positions or outmatched by French forces.

How did Napoleon use psychological warfare to weaken his enemies?

Constant French victories boosted his troops' morale while repeated defeats demoralized the enemy, making them more likely to surrender or flee.

How did the lack of unity among Napoleon's enemies contribute to their defeat?

Coalition forces had different goals, and alliances like the 2nd and 3rd Coalitions collapsed when individual members sought separate peace deals. Napoleon exploited these divisions to his advantage.

What was the primary reason for the creation of Napoleon's empire?

The creation of Napoleon's empire was the result of his military success, as he expanded France's influence and control over much of Europe.

How did Napoleon's coronation in 1804 change the political structure of France?

After Napoleon was crowned Emperor in 1804, areas directly under French control became part of his empire, expanding France's territorial reach.

How large was France by 1810 under Napoleon's rule?

By 1810, France had 130 departments and a population of 44 million, making it one of the largest European powers of the time.

What did Napoleon claim was his goal for the people of Europe?

Napoleon claimed he wanted to provide the people of Europe with a common fatherland, promoting unity across the continent.

How did Napoleon view his empire in relation to the spread of Enlightenment ideals?

Napoleon saw his empire as a means to spread Enlightenment values, aiming to rid Europe of aristocratic privilege and feudal laws, replacing outdated systems with more progressive reforms.

What major political change did Napoleon implement in 1806?

Napoleon ended the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, replacing it with the Confederation of the Rhine, a collection of German states loyal to France.

How did Napoleon use his family to solidify his rule over Europe?

Napoleon created a dynasty by placing his family members and trusted French marshals on the thrones of conquered nations, ensuring loyalty and extending his influence.

How did Napoleon's empire enhance French pride?

The empire was a mark of prestige, glorifying Napoleon as Emperor and boosting French pride, but it was costly, especially during a time when France faced economic struggles following the turmoil of the Revolutionary period.

How did Napoleon's empire contribute to France's income?

The empire contributed to French income through taxation, the supply of materials, and loans from conquered territories, but the costs of administration often outstripped the revenue it generated.

How did Napoleon use patronage to maintain control over his empire?

Napoleon rewarded loyal service by granting seized land and imperial titles to his supporters, but he couldn't always ensure loyalty, as shown by his brothers, Joseph and Louis, who took an independent line, and Bernadotte, who became a traitor.

How did Napoleon's empire affect the French army?

The empire provided men for the army, but maintaining the empire required an increasingly larger army. The French soldiers were more motivated and loyal compared to the conscripted soldiers from satellite states, and the lack of training among these conscripts contributed to their eventual defection.

How did Napoleon improve the talent pool of administrators?

Napoleon expanded the talent pool by sending sons of imperial families to lycées and offering them government posts within France and the empire, but this reduced opportunities for native French citizens, causing resentment among them.

What caused resentment and uprisings within Napoleon's empire?

Resentment was fuelled by conscription, taxation, Napoleon's attitude toward the Church, and the economic blockade, leading to uprisings against his rule.

How did Napoleon unify Europe, and what were the consequences?

Napoleon unified much of Europe under French control, but this unification came with the imposition of French culture, which led to a rise in nationalism among conquered peoples who sought to destroy Napoleon's empire.

What were Napoleon's key administrative goals for his empire?

Napoleon aimed to destroy privilege, apply legal codes, and centralize power in an efficient and bureaucratic system, sharing the French experience across his empire. Napoleon aimed to destroy privilege, apply legal codes, and centralize power in an efficient and bureaucratic system, sharing the French experience across his empire.

What administrative structures did Napoleon establish in conquered territories?

He set up an imperial bureaucracy with prefects, tax collectors, gendarmes, and customs officers, ensuring control and efficiency.

How were some territories fully integrated into France?

Territories incorporated into greater France were turned into departments, with administration fully centralized under Paris.

How did Napoleon govern territories outside of direct French control?

These areas had varied administrative systems, but Napoleon tried to mirror the French model, establishing Councils of State, prefects, and financial systems (accounting and budgeting).

How effective was Napoleon's imperial administration?

Despite some corrupt officers and military leaders, the empire was effectively run, with highly centralized authority where officials had to report regularly and defer major decisions to Napoleon.

What role did the gendarmerie (military police) play in Napoleon's empire?

The gendarmerie reinforced law, order, and central authority and was effective in directly controlled territories, but in Southern Italy and Northern Germany, locals saw it as oppressive and unnecessary. Attempts to establish it in Spain failed entirely.

How well-functioning was the imperial system overall?

For most of the empire, Napoleon's administration was a well-oiled machine, ensuring stability and control, despite resistance in certain regions.

What was Napoleon's core economic policy for the Grand Empire?

Napoleon adopted a "France first" policy, prioritizing France's needs over those of the satellite states and requiring them to heavily contribute to French protection.

How did Napoleon aim to maximize revenue from satellite states

He removed privileges, dismantled the guild system, and eliminated internal customs barriers. Additionally, rigorous taxation was enforced to increase revenue from these territories.

How did Napoleon's reforms impact tax revenue in the Kingdom of Italy?

Between 1805-1811, Napoleon improved administrative efficiency, raising tax revenue in the Kingdom of Italy by 50%.

What were some key taxation reforms in the Empire?

Taxes were simplified:

• Naples replaced over 100 taxes with a single land and industry tax.
• Holland introduced a new land tax and a commercial profit tax that were lower than the agricultural tax, benefiting wealthy merchants.

How did Napoleon manage land within the Empire?

The Empire provided land (church and sovereign land) to be used for dotations, benefiting loyal supporters and consolidating control.

How did war affect Napoleon's management of satellite states?

War made managing the satellite states more difficult. Napoleon became more concerned with their contributions to the French budget than ensuring their self-sufficiency.

How were states under direct French control treated economically?

States under direct French control were treated preferentially, supplying materials and food to France. These states were not allowed to develop manufacturing industries that could compete with French industries.

What was the Continental System and how did it impact trade?

The Continental System, established by the Berlin Decree (1806) and Milan Decree (1807), aimed to exclude British goods from Europe and promote French goods instead.

How did the Continental System benefit certain regions of the empire?

The inner empire benefited from the preferential trade zone, with regions like Berlin thriving by banning British cotton, leading to a textile industry boom. The Rhineland's mining sector also prospered.

Which sectors of the economy suffered due to Napoleon's policies?

Non-French manufacturing sectors, like the silk industry in Lombardy and Piedmont, suffered as all raw silk had to be sent to Lyons, France. Berg textiles couldn't compete with the Rhineland, and Genoa lost trade to Italy.

How did agriculture fare under Napoleon's policies?

Agriculture was less affected, and in some cases, it thrived—Italian rice was almost entirely exported to France, and large-scale agriculture was generally profitable.

What were some of the negative consequences of Napoleon's economic policies between 1810-11?

Napoleon's blockades and tariff system led to a detrimental impact on the empire, as there was insufficient demand for manufactured goods in Europe. This resulted in overproduction, falling prices, and worsened by bad harvests.

Were Napoleon's policies entirely to blame for the economic issues?

While his policies had a significant impact, British industrial strength and Europe's primarily agricultural economy also played a role. Europe had small markets and low economic development, which made his policies less impactful in some areas.

What were the broader effects of Napoleon's economic policies on local trade?

Napoleon's policies caused a constant financial drain, disrupted local trade patterns, and led to discontent

What was Napoleon's approach to social reforms in newly acquired territories?

In the early years of his empire, new territories underwent the same reforms as France, with a consistent policy of spreading French values, including liberty, equality, and the belief in the superiority of enlightened people

How did Napoleon's imperial social policies change after 1808?

After 1808, policies became less consistent, and the pressures of empire led to compromises, such as the 1801 Concordat and a shift away from secular privileges of the state.

What were the key social changes introduced by the Concordat of 1801 for the empire?

ended the secular privileges of the state and established religious toleration. Church lands were seized, monasteries were abolished, and the tithe was abolished, making parish priests civil servants.

How did the Concordat affect different groups in empire society?

welcomed by secular elements like Rhineland businessmen, but it sparked peasant uprisings in Spain (1808) and popular disturbances (1809) due to Napoleon's seizure of the Pope and challenges to deeply held values, especially in Catholic areas like Southern Italy

How did Napoleon's empire affect feudal privilege?

spread of Napoleon's empire brought an attack on feudal privilege, with seigneurial rights and feudal systems challenged. Fiscal structures were harmonized, and tax exemptions were removed across territories.

What were some of the legal reforms introduced under Napoleon in the empire?

Civil Code, which gave legal equality to all societies under French rule, ensuring that special legal rights were removed, and everyone was subject to the same laws.

Did the nobility disappear under Napoleon's rule in the empire?

While the nobility did not entirely disappear, the regime saw landowners as important for stability. Many from the noble class were given positions of power in the imperial local government, though the traditional trappings of nobility were lost.

How did Napoleon's policies affect the rural areas and entrenched systems of the empire?

Despite some efforts, especially in places like Naples and German states, social reforms were often difficult to enforce in rural Europe, particularly in entrenched systems. Napoleon's focus shifted to military needs, and post-1808, less effort was made to enforce the Civil Code

• attempts to give the Poles a constitution failed

How did conscription affect rural populations of the empire?

led to significant peasant hostility and rebellion, particularly after 1808. There was growing discontent in regions like rural Spain, Naples, Veneto, and the German Tyrol.

Who benefited the most from Napoleon's empire in terms of rewards?

main Napoleonic rewards went to those already at the top of the social hierarchy or to the wealthy, including the middle class and military elites. Common people, however, remained under foreign rule and experienced compulsory service.

Why did Napoleon focus on undermining British commerce?

Britain was a trading nation with significant resources, allowing it to finance military coalitions against France. Napoleon attempted to undermine British commerce to weaken Britain's ability to fund its wars.

What was the Berlin Decree of 1806, and how did it impact British trade?

In November 1806, after abandoning his invasion plans, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree, which forbade all states under French control or allied with France from buying British goods. This decree declared a blockade of Britain and its territories, aiming to economically isolate Britain.

How did Britain respond to Napoleon's blockade of British goods?

In November 1807, Britain issued the Orders in Council, declaring that Britain would not buy goods from France or any of its allies or countries complying with the blockade. The Royal Navy then blockaded the ports of France and its allies.

What was the Milan Decree of 1807, and how did it escalate tensions?

Milan Decree of 1807 authorized French warships to capture neutral ships sailing from areas occupied by Britain. It also declared that any ship allowing itself to be searched by British forces was liable to capture, further escalating the blockade.

How did the Continental System affect the empire?

essential goods such as tea, coffee, sugar, and tobacco almost unattainable across continental Europe, causing complaints and uprisings.
The system's strain on Napoleon's resources and his military commitments contributed to growing discontent.

What were some of the major consequences of maintaining the Continental System after 1808?

After 1808, maintaining the Continental System became more challenging. Portugal's refusal to comply led to the damaging entry into Spain in 1808, and in 1810, Tsar Alexander I of Russia opted out of the system, severely harming Russian trade, which contributed to Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812.

How did Spain's alliance with France change before the Peninsular War?

Spain had been allied with France since 1795 after its defeat. However, following Britain's naval victory at Trafalgar (1805), Spain briefly allied with Britain (1805-07) before once again aligning with Napoleon.

Why did Napoleon invade Portugal in 1807, and what was the outcome?

Portugal was allowing British goods into Europe, violating Napoleon's Continental System. In December 1807, a Franco-Spanish force captured Lisbon, forcing the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil.

How did Napoleon take control of Spain in 1808?

Spain was in political chaos with a weak and corrupt government. Napoleon did not trust King Charles IV after his shifting allegiances. In March 1808, Charles's pro-British son Ferdinand attempted a coup. Napoleon sent 10,000 French troops to force Charles to abdicate, installing his brother Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain.

How did the Spanish people react to French rule?

The educated middle class often welcomed French rule, but landowners feared losing influence, and the Catholic Church opposed the French. Local resistance committees formed, and Spanish rebels launched a major uprising.

What happened at the Battle of Bailén (July 1808), and why was it significant?

A Spanish army from Andalusia defeated French forces, forcing them to retreat from Spain. The surrender of 22,000 French soldiers was a huge blow to Napoleon's prestige.

How did Britain and Napoleon react after the Spanish victory at Bailén?

In August 1808, Napoleon imposed Joseph Bonaparte as King and Britain sent the Duke of Wellington to aid the Spanish. In August 1808, French forces were defeated at the Battle of Vimeiro (Portugal). In response, Napoleon personally led an army of 80,000 troops into Madrid (Dec 1808).

Why was the Peninsular War so difficult for the French?

The Spanish rebels used guerilla warfare, attacking French supply lines and troops. The rugged terrain, poor communication, and hostile peasant population made it difficult for the French to live off the land. Fighting was long and drawn out, exhausting French resources.

What role did British forces under Sir John Moore play?

Sir John Moore led British forces to harass the French, though he failed to cut French communication lines in Northern Spain. In January 1809, Moore was forced to retreat, and the British barely escaped by sea—though Moore was killed in the battle.

Why did Napoleon leave Spain in 1809, and how did Wellington respond?

Napoleon left Spain in January 1809 to deal with a new war against Austria. Wellington returned to Lisbon in April 1809 with 30,000 men, building forts (1809-1810) to protect British-controlled Portugal.

Why did the French ultimately fail in Spain?

Despite deploying 250,000 men and spending huge sums of money, the French never achieved a breakthrough. Every victory was countered by British attacks and Spanish guerrilla warfare, which gradually wore down the French army.

How did the Peninsular War end?

By 1813, Wellington's army advanced into Madrid, forcing Joseph Bonaparte to flee. In 1814, the British and Spanish forces invaded France and defeated the French at Toulouse, marking the end of French rule in Spain.

Why did Tsar Alexander I break his alliance with Napoleon?

By 1810, Tsar Alexander was frustrated with:

• The Continental System and British blockade hurting Russia's economy.
• Napoleon's marriage to Marie-Louise of Austria instead of a Russian princess.
• Fears that Napoleon would restore Poland, threatening Russian land.
• Napoleon's annexation of Oldenburg and failure to support Russian expansion.

How did Russia openly defy Napoleon in 1810?

On 31 December 1810, Tsar Alexander broke Napoleon's trade embargo, imposed tariffs on French imports, and allowed neutral ships into Russian ports.

How did Napoleon prepare for the Russian invasion?

Napoleon assembled the Grand Armée, a force of 600,000 soldiers from across the empire. However, Sweden allied with Russia (1812), further weakening Napoleon's position.

When and where did Napoleon launch his invasion?

June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia, beginning in Russian-controlled Lithuania.

Why did Napoleon expect a quick victory?

He believed he could press into Muscovy and defeat Russia in weeks.

What logistical problems did the Grand Armée face?

• Overstretched supply lines couldn't support the large army.
• Poor maps, inadequate clothing, and limited medical supplies.
• Severe winter conditions.
• Army relied on raw recruits and conscripts, who lacked discipline.

How did the Russians counter Napoleon's advance?

• They retreated deeper into Russia, extending French supply lines.
• They burned cities as they went, denying the French resources.

What happened at the Battle of Borodino (September 1812)?

• Napoleon failed to break the Russian army.
• French lost 28,000 men, Russians lost 40,000, but the Russians retreated in an orderly manner.

What did Napoleon find when he entered Moscow?

The city was deserted and soon set on fire by the Russians—80% of houses were destroyed.

Why was the capture of Moscow not a victory?

The Russians refused to negotiate peace, leaving Napoleon stranded with no supplies.

What hardships did the French face during their retreat?

Freezing temperatures, starvation, and disease.
Russian peasant attacks and harassment.
Thousands of troops died from frostbite and hunger.

Why did Napoleon leave his army in December 1812?

He returned to Paris after hearing about a plot by Claude-François de Malet, a former Jacobin, to overthrow him.

What did Malet's plot reveal about Napoleon's empire?

It showed how dependent the empire was on Napoleon personally.

What was the state of Napoleon's army by the end of the campaign?

Only 10,000 soldiers survived, with just 1,000 fit for service.