AP PSYCH 3.1-3.6B

Developmental Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.

Chronological Order (Research Approach)

Studying human development sequentially by age, focusing on distinct life stages.

Thematic Issues (Research Approach)

Exploring specific topics or questions that span across an individual’s entire lifespan rather than focusing on age stages.

Stability vs. Change (Enduring Theme)

Examines which traits persist through life and which change as we age.

Continuity vs. Stages of Development

Addresses whether development is gradual and continuous or occurs in distinct stages.

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows and retests the same individuals over time to track developmental change.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

Cohort Effect

Differences among people caused by shared generational experiences rather than age itself.

Nature vs. Nurture

Examines how genetic inheritance and environmental experiences interact to influence development.

Biopsychosocial Influences

Development results from the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Teratogens

Agents such as chemicals or viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive deficits caused by a mother’s heavy drinking during pregnancy.

Conception

The formation of a zygote when sperm fertilizes an egg.

Embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks to 9 weeks after conception.

Fetus

The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

Infant Reflexes

Automatic survival responses present at birth that typically disappear by 4–6 months.

Rooting Reflex

Infant turns head and opens mouth when cheek is touched.

Grasping Reflex

Infant tightly grips an object placed in their hand.

Babinski Reflex

Toes fan out and big toe moves upward when sole of foot is stroked.

Moro Reflex

Infant startle response indicating healthy nervous system.

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Gross Motor Skills

Large movements involving major muscle groups.

Fine Motor Skills

Small, precise movements involving smaller muscle groups.

Developmental Milestones

Typical ages at which physical and cognitive skills emerge.

Visual Cliff Experiment

A test of depth perception in infants using a glass-covered drop-off.

Critical Period

An optimal early-life period when exposure to stimuli produces normal development.

Sensitive Period

A time when learning is easier due to brain readiness, though still possible later.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly development, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation when reproduction becomes possible.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs and structures that make sexual reproduction possible.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual traits that develop during puberty.

Menarche

First menstrual period.

Spermarche

First ejaculation.

Menopause

Natural cessation of menstruation and reproductive ability.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Emerging Adulthood

Period from late teens to mid-20s when individuals are not adolescents but not fully independent adults.

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to reason quickly and solve novel problems; declines with age.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increases or remains stable with age.

Cognition

Mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema

A mental framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to age 2; knowing the world through sensory impressions and motor activities.

Object Permanence

Awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived.

Preoperational Stage

Ages 2–7; use of language without logical operations.

Includes:

• Egocentrism

• Animism

• Artificialism

• Centration

• Lack of Conservation

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing from another person’s point of view.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.

Concrete Operational Stage

Ages 7–11; logical thinking about concrete events, conservation is mastered (e.g. understanding the amt of water is the same in different shaped glasses)

Formal Operational Stage

Begins around age 12; logical thinking about abstract concepts. (abstract logic, moral reasoning)

Theory of Mind

Understanding others’ mental states, beliefs, and intentions.

Language

An agreed-upon system of spoken, written, or signed words and rules.

Phoneme

Smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morpheme

Smallest unit carrying meaning.

Grammar

Rules that enable communication and understanding, including syntax and semantics.

Universal Grammar (UG)

Humans’ innate predisposition to understand grammatical rules.

Babbling Stage

Around 4 months; spontaneous speech sounds.

One-Word Stage

Ages 1–2; speech mostly in single words.

Two-Word Stage

Around age 2; speech in two-word sentences.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech using mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia

Language impairment due to brain damage.

Broca’s Area

Brain region involved in speech production.

Wernicke’s Area

Brain region involved in language comprehension.

Attachment

An emotional bond with caregivers shown by seeking closeness and distress on separation.

Harry Harlow

Researcher who demonstrated the importance of contact comfort in attachment.

Mary Ainsworth

Researcher who developed the Strange Situation and identified attachment styles.

Strange Situation

Procedure for studying attachment via caregiver separation and reunion.

Secure Attachment

Distress at separation, comfort at reunion, and confident exploration.

Insecure Attachment

Attachment marked by anxious, avoidant, or disorganized behaviors.

Imprinting

Early-life attachment process in certain animals.

Temperament

Characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and neglectful approaches to child-rearing.

Authoritarian Parenting

High control, low warmth; strict rules and obedience.

Permissive Parenting

Low control, high warmth; few demands or limits.

Authoritative Parenting

High control and warmth; supportive with clear rules.

Neglectful Parenting

Low control and warmth; uninvolved parenting.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Eight stages of development, each defined by a psychosocial crisis.

Trust vs. Mistrust (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Infancy; developing basic trust through caregiving. (To 1 year)

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Toddlers learning independence. (1-3 years)

Initiative vs. Guilt. (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Preschool stage focused on planning and purpose. (3-6 years)

Industry vs. Inferiority (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Childhood stage focused on competence. (6 years to puberty)

Identity vs. Role Confusion (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Adolescence stage focused on forming identity. (Teen years to 20s)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Young adulthood stage focused on relationships. (20s to early 40s)

Generativity vs. Stagnation (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Middle adulthood stage focused on contributing to society. (40s to 60s)

Integrity vs. Despair (erikson’s stages of psychosocial development)

Late adulthood stage involving life reflection. (Late 60s and older)

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality.

Sex

Biologically influenced characteristics defining male, female, or intersex.

Gender

Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and expectations related to sex.

Gender Identity

Internal sense of being male, female, neither, or both.

Gender Roles

Societal expectations for behavior based on gender.

Gender Stereotypes

Oversimplified beliefs about gender traits.

Gender Typing

Acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine roles.

Androgyny

Blending masculine and feminine psychological traits.

Sexual Orientation

Enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction.

Asexual

Having no sexual attraction to others.

Social Learning Theory

Behavior learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement.

Gender Schema Theory

Mental frameworks that guide processing of gender-related information.

Individualistic Cultures

Cultures emphasizing independence and personal achievement.

Collectivistic Cultures

Cultures emphasizing group harmony and interdependence.

Social Clock

Culturally preferred timing of major life events.

Ecological System Theory

a theory of the social environment’s influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences.