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Cell membrane
The outer covering of a cell that regulates entry and exit of substances.
Cytoplasm
Gel-like material surrounding the nucleus where cell activities occur.
Nucleus
Central cell structure that directs all cellular activities and houses DNA.
Chemical level
The body’s simplest level, consisting of atoms and molecules.
Cellular level
Level composed of cells, the basic units of life.
Tissue level
Groups of similar cells working together to perform a function.
Organ level
Different tissues combined to carry out a specific function.
Organ system level
Organs working together for a common purpose.
Organismal level
The whole living human being.
Epithelial tissue
Tissue that covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands.
Squamous epithelium
Flat epithelial cells specialized for diffusion and filtration.
Cuboidal epithelium
Cube-shaped epithelial cells often involved in secretion or absorption.
Columnar epithelium
Tall, column-shaped epithelial cells specialized for absorption and secretion.
Simple epithelium
One layer of epithelial cells.
Stratified epithelium
Multiple layers of epithelial cells for protection.
Connective tissue
Tissue that supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs.
Loose connective tissue
Areolar, adipose, and reticular tissues that cushion and support structures.
Dense connective tissue
Tendons and ligaments rich in collagen fibers for strong attachment.
Cartilage
Firm, flexible connective tissue; includes hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.
Bone (osseous) tissue
Rigid connective tissue that provides structural support and stores minerals.
Blood (vascular tissue)
Fluid connective tissue that transports gases, nutrients, and wastes.
Integumentary system
Skin and derivatives; protects body and regulates temperature.
Skeletal system
Bones and joints; supports, protects organs, stores minerals.
Muscular system
Muscles; enables movement, posture, and heat production.
Nervous system
Brain, spinal cord, nerves; rapid control and communication.
Endocrine system
Glands that secrete hormones for long-term regulation.
Cardiovascular system
Heart and blood vessels; transports blood, nutrients, and wastes.
Lymphatic/Immune system
Lymph nodes, vessels, spleen; defense against infection and fluid balance.
Respiratory system
Lungs and airways; performs gas exchange of O₂ and CO₂.
Digestive system
Organs that break down food and absorb nutrients.
Urinary system
Kidneys, ureters, bladder; removes waste and balances fluids.
Reproductive system
Organs that produce gametes and offspring.
Dorsal cavity
Posterior body cavity containing cranial and spinal cavities.
Cranial cavity
Space within the skull housing the brain.
Spinal cavity
Canal within the vertebrae containing the spinal cord.
Ventral cavity
Anterior cavity including thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
Thoracic cavity
Cavity holding heart and lungs.
Abdominopelvic cavity
Cavity containing digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs.
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Contains right liver lobe, gallbladder, right kidney, part of pancreas, intestines.
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Houses stomach, spleen, left liver lobe, part of pancreas, left kidney, intestines.
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Contains appendix, right ovary or ureter, intestines.
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
Contains left ovary or ureter, intestines.
Right hypochondriac region
Abdominopelvic region with right liver lobe and gallbladder.
Epigastric region
Upper middle region containing stomach, liver, pancreas.
Left hypochondriac region
Region with spleen and part of stomach.
Right lumbar region
Area with ascending colon and right kidney.
Umbilical region
Central region containing small intestine and transverse colon.
Left lumbar region
Region with descending colon and left kidney.
Right iliac (inguinal) region
Lower right region containing appendix and cecum.
Hypogastric (pubic) region
Lower middle region housing bladder and reproductive organs.
Left iliac (inguinal) region
Lower left region containing sigmoid colon.
Superior
Toward the head or upper part of a structure; above.
Inferior
Away from the head; below.
Anterior (ventral)
Toward the front of the body.
Posterior (dorsal)
Toward the back of the body.
Medial
Toward the midline of the body.
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body.
Proximal
Closer to the origin of a limb or trunk attachment.
Distal
Farther from the point of limb attachment.
Superficial
Nearer the body surface.
Deep
Farther from the body surface.
Sagittal plane
Vertical plane dividing body into right and left parts.
Midsagittal plane
Plane that divides body into equal right and left halves.
Frontal