Soc 101 Review

sociology

the study of human society

sociological imagination

the ability to see connections between our own personal experiences and the larger forces of history

scientific method

procedure involving the formulation, testing, and modifications of hypotheses based on systematic observations, measurements, and/or experiments

Does the independent variable cause the dependent variable and vice versa?

No, there’s correlation but no causation. There’s usually a third variable involved.

qualitative method

collecting information about the social world that has no numerical data

quantitative method

collecting information about the social world that can be measured numerically

social institution

a complex group of interdependent positions that, together, perform a social role and reproduce themselves over time

• any institution in a society that works to shape the behavior of the groups or people within it

positivism

sociological approach that emphasizes the scientific method as an approach to studying the objectively observable behavior of individuals without taking into account the meanings those actions have for the subjects themselves

verstehen

German “understanding”, the basis of interpretive sociology

• comes from Max Weber

interpretive sociology

a type of scholarship in which researchers imagine themselves experiencing the life positions of the social actors they want to understand rather than treating those people as objects to be examined

anomie

a sense of aimlessness or despair that arises when we can no longer reasonably expect life to be predictable

• too little social regulation

• normlessness

double conciousness

describes the behavioral scripts, one for moving through the world, the other incorporating the external opinions of prejudiced onlookers which are constantly maintained by African Americans

• W. E. B. Du Bois

functionalism

theory that various social institutions and processes in society exist to serve some important (or necessary) function to keep society running

conflict theory

the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic animating force of social change and society in general

symbolic interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people’s action

postmodernism

a condition characterized by the questioning of the notion of progress and history, the replacement of narrative with pastiche

• imitation of other work in the service of satire or subversion

• multiple conflicting identities resulting from unconnected affiliations

social construction

an entity that exists because people behave as if it exists and whose existence is perpetuated as people and social institutions act in accordance with widely agreed-on formal rules or informal norms of behavior associated with the entity

midrange theory

a theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function

microsociology

a branch of sociology that seeks to understand local interactional contexts

• ethnographies and interviews

macrosociology

a branch of sociology generally concerned with social dynamics at a higher level of analysis

ethnography

a qualitative method of studying people or a social setting that uses observation, interaction, and sometimes formal interviewing to document behaviors, customs, experiences, social ties, etc.

theory

an abstracted, systematic model of how some aspect of the world works

research methods

approaches that social scientists use for investigating the answers to question

casual relationship

the idea that one factor influences another through a chain of events

deductive approach

a research approach that starts with a theory, forms a hypothesis, makes empirical observations, and then analyzes the data to confirm, reject, or modify the original theory

inductive approach

a research approach that starts with empirical observations and then works to form a theory

natural experiment

something that takes place in the world that affects people in a way that is unrelated to any other preexisting factors or their characteristics

• approximating random assignment to treatment or control groups

causality

the notion that a change in one factor results in a corresponding change in another

reverse causality

a situation in which the researcher believes that A results in a change in B, but B is in fact causing A

dependent variable

the outcome the researcher is trying to explain

independent variable

a measured factor that the researcher believes has a casual impact on the dependent variable

hypothesis

a proposed relationship between two variables, usually with a state direction

operationalization

how a concept gets defined and measured in a given study

validity

the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure

reliability

analyzing and critically considering our own role in, and effect on, our research

generalizability

the extent to which we can claim our findings inform us about a group larger than the one we studied

feminist methodology

a set of systems or methods that treat women’s experiences as legitimate empirical and theoretical resources that promote social science for women and take into account the researcher as much as the overt subject matter

participation observation

a qualitative research method that seeks to uncover the meanings people give their social actions by observing their behavior in practice

survey

an ordered series of questions intended to elicit information from respondents

representative sample

the idea that a particular slice of social observation captures in an accurate way the larger set (or universe) of those henomena that it is meant to stand in for

historical methods

research that collects data written from reports, newspaper articles, journals, transcripts, television programs, diaries, artwork, and other artifacts that date back to the period under study

comparative research

a methodology by which two or more entities which are similar in many dimensions but differ on the one in question are compared to learn the dimension that differs between them

content analysis

a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication

population

an entire group of individual persons, objects, or items from which samples may be drawn

sample

the subset of the population from which you are actually collecting data

case study

an intensive investigation of one particular unit of analysis in order to describe it or uncover its mechanisms

nonmaterial culture

values, beliefs, behaviors, and social norms

material culture

everything that is a part of our constructed, physical environment (including technology)

culture lag

the time gap between the appearance of a new technology and the words and practices that give it meaning

culture shock

doubt, confusion, or anxiety arising from immersion in an unfamiliar culture

code switch

to flip fluidly between two or more languages and sets of cultural norms to fit different cultural contexts

ideology

a system of concepts and relationships

• an understanding of cause and effect

cultural relativism

taking into account the differences across cultures without passing judgement or assigning value

cultural scripts

modes of behavior and understanding that are not universal or natural

subculture

the distinct cultural values and behavioral patterns of a particular group in society

• a group united by sets of concepts, values, symbols, and shared meaning specific to the members of that group and distinctive enough to distinguish it from others within the same culture or society

values

moral beliefs

• how we think things should be done

norms

how values tell us to behave

• how things are actually done

socialization

the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society

reflection theory

the idea that culture is a projection of social structures and relationships into the public sphere

• a screen onto which the film of underlying reality of social structures of a society is projected

media

any formats, platforms, or vehicles that carry, present, or communicate information

hegemony

a condition by which a dominant group uses its power to elicit the voluntary “consent” of the masses

consumerism

the steady acquisition of material possessions

• the belief that happiness and fulfillment can thus be achieved

culture jamming

the act of turning media against themselves

socialization

the process by which individuals internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of a given society and learn to function as members of that society

self

the individual identity of a person as perceived by the same person

I

one’s subjective sense of having consciousness, agency, action or power

Looking Glass Self or “me”

the self as one imagines others perceive one

other

someone or something outside of oneself

generalized other

an internalized sense of the total expectations of others in a variety of settings regardless of whether we know those people or not

resocialization

the process by which one’s sense of social values, beliefs, and norms are reengineered through intense social process

total institution

an institution in which one is totally immersed and that controls all the basics of day-to-day life

status

a recognizable social position that an individual occupies

role

the duties and behaviors expected of someone who holds a particular status

role strain

the incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status

role conflict

the tension caused by competing demands between two or more roles pertaining to different statuses

status set

all the statuses one holds simuatenously

ascribed status

a status into which one is born

• involuntary

master status

one status within a set that stands out or overrides all others

gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one’s status as masculine, feminine, or other

dramaturgical theory

the view of social life as essentially a theatrical performance

• advanced by Erving Goffman

face

the esteem in which an individual is held by others

ethnomethology

the methods of people

• studying human interaction by focusing on the ways in which we make sense of our world, convey this understanding to others and produce a shared social order

dyad

a group of two

triad

a group of three

mediator

the member of a triad who attempts to resolve conflict between the two other actors in the group

tertius gaudens

the member of a triad who benefits from conflict between the other two members of the group

divide et impera

the role of a member of a triad who intentionally drives a wedge between the other two actors in the group

small group

a group characterized by face-to-face interaction, unifocal perspective, lack of formal arrangements or roles, and a level of equality

party

a group that is similar to a small group but is multifocal

large group

a group characterized by the presence of a formal structure that mediates interaction and status differentiation

primary groups

social groups composed of intimate face-to-face relationships that strongly influence the attitudes and ideals of those involved

secondary groups

groups marked by impersonal instrumental relationships

in-group

the powerful group, the majority

out-group

the stigmatized or less power group, the minority

reference group

a group that helps us understand or make sense of our position in society relative to other groups

social network

a set of relations held together by ties between individuals

tie

the connection between two people in a relationship that varies in strength from one relationship to the next

narrative

the sum of stories contained in a set of ties

embeddedness

the degree to which social relationships are reinforced through indirect ties

structural hole

a gap between network clusters if those individuals have complementary resources