Oregon State Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1

Anatomy

Describes the structures of the body:

What they are called

What they are made of

Where they are located

Associated structures

Physiology

Study of function:

function of anatomical structures

individual and cooperative functions

Structure dictates Function

The anatomy or shape of something determines its function (what is able to do).

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

Homeostatic Regulation

Physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable environments; Require:

Receptor

Control center

Effector

Autoregulation

An intrinsic controlled system is inherent in an organ; the organ is capable of maintaining homeostasis within itself. For example, the heart can control its own heart rate//causes immediate, localized homeostatic adjustments

Extrinsic Regulation

Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems// Extrinsic control systems (nervous and endocrine systems) exist outside of the organs they control; these systems can override intrinsic systems. For example, although the heart controls its own rate, a slamming door will prompt the nervous system to increase the heart rate externally.

Negative Feedback Loop

Negative feedback opposes the initial change from a particular set point or condition. Any deviation from this baseline will prompt the negative feedback mechanism to steer conditions back to the set point. By continually adjusting to the baseline, homeostasis is maintained.

Positive Feedback Loop

Positive feedback amplifies the initial change that set it into motion. An output is enhanced; a controlled variable moves in the direction of an initial change. For example, during childbirth, oxytocin stimulates labor contractions. As the baby moves through the birth canal, the pressure stimulates the release of more oxytocin, which then stimulate further contractions.

Organic Compounds

Compounds that contain carbon (Covalent bonds between C and: Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) ,Phosphorus (P))

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction in which two molecules are bonded together with the removal of a water molecule. Forms Dimer (2 monomers bonded)

Hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water (Breaks down dimer to create monomer)

Selective Permeability

A property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.

Hydrophobic

Water fearing

Hydrophilic

Attracted to water

Simple Diffusion

Diffusion that doesn't involve a direct input of energy or assistance by carrier proteins.

Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels

Passive Transport

Requires NO energy, Movement of molecules from high to low concentration, Moves with the concentration gradient (Facilitated and Simple)

What Molecules Use Passive Transport?

Simple: Water and Oxygen

Facilitated: Glucose and Sodium ions

Small, fat soluble molecules like alcohols, O2, CO2, some drugs; does not limit water.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

Hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution. (Swollen)

Hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution (Shriveled)

Isotonic

Having the same solute concentration as another solution. (Normal)

Carrier Protein

Transport protein that changes shape when a particle binds with it and carries it through protein channel

Protein channel

Selective proteins in the cell membrane which open under certain conditions, therefore allowing only certain particles through

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference (Ions, Glucose and Amino Acids)

Protein Pump

The term applied to a protein channel/transport protein that is working to move substances against the concentration gradient with the help of cell energy (ATP).

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.

Endocytosis

A process in which a cell engulfs extracellular material through an inward folding of its plasma membrane.

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Double layer of phospholipid molecules:

hydrophilic heads—toward watery environment, both sides

hydrophobic fatty-acid tails—inside membrane

Studded with proteins: Enzymes, anchoring, recognition, transport

Microvilli

Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorption, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney

Cytoplasm

All materials inside the cell and outside the nucleus

Cytosol

The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm. (Water, dissolved materials:

nutrients, ions, proteins, and waste products)

Organelles

"Little Organs"; structures with specific functions

Mitochondria

An organelle found in large numbers in most cells (Specifically Muscle), in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur (Powerhouse of cell)

ATP

(adenosine triphosphate) Main energy source that cells use for most of their work; Made on demand in cytoplasm by enzymes (anaerobic metabolism) or in mitochondria (aerobic metabolism)

Cytoskeleton

Structural proteins for shape and strength (keratin)

Internal scaffolding, anchor other organelles

Act as "zip lines" for organelle, molecule transport

Cell contraction: actin & myosin

Cillia

Move fluids across the cell surface (Hairlike)

Flagellum

A long, whiplike structure that helps a cell to move (Sperm)

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction; More in Liver cells, muscle fibers, and osteoclasts.

Ribosomes

Build protein; Two kinds, free ribosomes in cytoplasm (cell) and

fixed ribosomes attached to ER (secretion) Cells that specialize in producing proteins have particularly large numbers of ribosomes.

Rough ER

Has ribosomes attached, Synthesis of proteins, Storage of synthesized molecules and materials, Transport of materials within the ER, Detoxification of drugs or toxins. Cells that specialize in protein secretion contain large amounts of rough endoplasmic reticulum. (Pancreas Plasma cells, white blood cells)

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes; The main function of the smooth ER is to make cellular products like hormones and lipids (Liver and Gonad cells)

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell (Epithelial and Gland Cells)

Transport vesicles

A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell.

Lysosomes

Cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

Cell Membrane

A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell (Alcohol - that's why it affects brain (gets through the blood brain barrier, Oils - lanolin, Vitamins - ADEK, O2, CO2)

H2O - not fat soluble, but small and abundant and sneaky

Can also be transported by a protein transporter

Chromatin

Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)

Chromosomes

Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing)

DNA

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes (instructions for every protein in the body)

Gene

Sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait

mRNA

Messenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome

Transcription

(genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA

tRNA

Transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome

Translation

(genetics) the process where mRNA read by ribosomes

tRNA brings proper amino acid from cytoplasm to ribosome

Ribosomes assemble protein strings

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

Mitosis

Exact copy of DNA made and 2 daughters produced - IDENTICAL

Meiosis

Exact copy made but 4 daughter cells made - DIFFERENT

Tissue Types

1. Epithelial

2. Connective

3. Muscle

4. Nervous

Epithelial Tissue

1. Epithelia: layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces

Protection & permeability

2. Glands: structures that produce secretions

Epithelia Characteristics

1.Cellularity (cell junctions)

2.Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)

3.Attachment (basement membrane)

4.Avascularity

5.Regeneration (Epithelia are replaced by division of stem cells near basal lamina)

simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of flattened cells (thin barrier, allows diffusion)

stratified squamous epithelium

multiple layers of flat cells (protects against attacks

Keratin proteins add strength and water resistance) (Vagina)

Stratified

multiple layers

simple

single layer

Cuboidal

cube shaped cells

Squamous

flat cells

Columnar

column shaped cells

Muscle Tissue

Specialized for contraction

Produces all body movement

Muscle Tissue Types

1. Skeletal muscle: (large body muscles responsible for movement)

2. Cardiac muscle: (found only in the heart)

3. Smooth muscle: (found in walls of hollow, contracting organs)

Connective Tissue

Fills internal spaces, Supports other tissues, Transports materials, Stores energy, Protects/insulates, Isolates

Characteristics of Connective Tissues

Specialized cells: Fibroblasts/fibrocytes, Blood cells, Adipocytes Osteocytes, Chondrocytes

Matrix (extracellular components): Majority of tissue volume, Protein fibers, Ground substance, Fills spaces between cells, Varied composition

Derived from mesenchyme

Dense Connective Tissue

Attachment and stabilization (tendons attach muscles to bones

ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs)

Supportive Connective Tissue

(Support soft tissues and body weight:)

cartilage: gel-type ground substance

for shock absorption and protection

bone: calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)

for weight support

Neural Tissue

Carries electrical signals from 1 part of the body to another

rapidly senses internal or external environment

process information and controls responses

Neural tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system (brain & spinal cord): 2 types of neural cells: Neuron - nerve cells

Neuroglia - support cell

Supine

Lying on the back

Prone

Lying face down

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

coronal plane

An imaginary plane where the body is cut into front and back parts.

Transverse plane

horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions

Posterior (dorsal)

back of body

Anterior (ventral)

front of the body

skeletal system functions

provides support, strength, protection, and mineral/fat storage; blood cells made in bone marrow

Elevations and projections

where tendons and ligaments attach, at articulations with other bones

Depressions or grooves

found along bone surface

Tunnels

where blood and nerves enter bone

Osseous Tissue (Bone)

Strongest of all connective tissue; it forms the skeletal system.

Bone CT is made up of

Osteocytes

Osteoblasts

Osteoclasts

Osteoprogenitor

Only 2% of bone mass

Matrix: Everything Else (extracellular components)

Collagen fibers (1/3)

Calcium salts (2/3)

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells Live in lacunae Are between layers (lamellae) of matrix Connect by canaliculi in lamellae to access blood supply Do not divide Maintain protein and mineral content of matrix Help repair damaged bone

Osteoblasts

Bone building cells, secrete matrix compounds (osteogenesis)

Osteoid is the matrix produced by osteoblasts, but not yet calcified

Osteoblasts trapped by matrix become osteocytes

Osteoclasts

Bone-destroying cells, Giant, multinucleate cells

Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes, are derived from stem cells that produce macrophages

Osteoprogenitor

Bone stem cells (Can only become osteoblasts), Mesenchymal stem cells that divide to produce osteoblasts

Located in inner, cellular layer of periosteum and in endosteum

Important in fracture repair

Trabeculae

Supporting bundles of bony fibers in cancellous (spongy) bone (bone marrow between) Microscopic: Irregular lamellae of matrix

Osteocytes connected by canaliculi

spongy bone (cancellous bone)

mesh-like bone tissue found in the interior of bones

Osteon

Structural unit of compact bone

Compact Bone

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone. Concentric lamellae of matrix, Central canal contains blood vessels, nerves, Osteocytes connected by canaliculi

lamellae of bone

One one of the rings