BIOS251 Weeks 3 & 4 Exam 2 Review Flashcards

A comprehensive review of cell theory, membrane transport, organelles, protein synthesis, cellular respiration, mitosis, histology, and tissue modifications.

Prokaryotic cells

Cells without an organized nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells

Cells with an organized and well defined nucleus.

Cytosol

The clear gel within a cell, sometimes referred to as intracellular fluid (ICF).

Cytoplasm

All the fluid and components between the nucleus and the cell membrane, including the cytosol and the cytoskeleton.

Gamete cells

Sex cells (sperm and ovum) used for reproduction that replicate via meiosis.

Somatic cells

All body cells other than sex cells, which replicate via mitosis.

Phospholipid bilayer

The structure of the cell membrane consisting of hydrophilic (water loving) heads and hydrophobic (water hating) tails.

Transmembrane proteins

Proteins that cross the entire width of the membrane, touching both internal and external surfaces.

Peripheral proteins

Proteins found only on one surface (inner or outer) of the cell membrane.

Glycolipids and Glycoproteins

Sugars attached to lipids or proteins in the membrane that provide protection, display signals, and attach cells.

Cholesterol

A molecule in the membrane that creates the fluid mosaic model, provides stiffness by decreasing fluidity, and insulates the cell from heat.

Channel proteins

Integral proteins that allow ions to cross the membrane from one side to another.

Carrier proteins

Proteins that transport specific substances from one side of the plasma membrane to the other.

Receptor proteins

Proteins that recognize and bind to specific molecules called ligands.

Na+/K+ ATPase pump

A pump that maintains an electrochemical gradient by moving $3$ sodium ions out and $2$ potassium ions into the cell.

Gap Junctions

Intercellular connections formed by connexons that allow for extremely rapid and direct communication between cells via the exchange of ions and cytoplasm.

Cell Adhesion Molecules

Molecules that serve as structural support and stability for a cell.

Cadherins

Proteins that transport extracellular ligand (chemical) signaling into cells.

Spectrin

A protein in charge of maintaining red-cell shape; its absence is associated with hereditary spherocytosis.

Simple Diffusion

Passive transport that moves chemicals along a concentration gradient from higher to lower concentration without using ATP.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Hypertonicity

A condition where solutions have high ECF osmolarity, causing water to move out and the cell to shrink.

Hypotonicity

A condition where solutions have low ECF osmolarity, causing water to move into the cell, resulting in swelling or bursting.

Isotonicity

A condition where solutions have the same osmolarity, resulting in no net movement of water.

Phagocytosis

A form of bulk transport known as "cell eating" where the cell brings in solids.

Pinocytosis

A form of bulk transport known as "cell drinking" where the cell brings in liquids.

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

The voltage created by the uneven distribution of ions across a membrane, measured at $-70\,mV$.

Depolarization

The stage where $Na^+$ channels open and $Na^+$ enters the cell, making the internal charge more positive.

Repolarization

The stage where $Na^+$ channels close and $K^+$ channels open, allowing $K^+$ to rush out of the cell.

Nucleolus

The dark region at the center of the nucleus made of chromatin.

Central Dogma

The process of copying DNA to create RNA as a blueprint for making proteins.

Transcription

The first step of the central dogma where a double-stranded DNA template is used to create an mRNA copy.

Translation

The process where a ribosome interprets the mRNA code to construct a protein.

tRNA (Transfer RNA)

The type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome.

Codons for Translation

Initiation uses the start codon $AUG$; termination uses stop codons $UGA$, $UAA$, or $UAG$.

DNA Base Pairing

The specific pairing of nitrogenous bases where Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C).

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The cell’s energy transfer molecule, which stores energy in its phosphate-phosphate bonds.

Cellular Respiration Equation

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 + ADP + Pi \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP$$

Mitosis

The division of the cell nucleus consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Cytokinesis

The division of the cell itself, resulting in two identical daughter cells.

Histology

The study of tissues, including their structure, function, and microscopic organization.

C-MEN

An acronym for the four major tissue types: Connective, Muscle, Epithelial, and Nervous.

Avascular

A characteristic of epithelial tissue meaning it lacks its own blood supply and depends on connective tissue for oxygen and nutrients.

Merocrine glands

Exocrine glands that release secretions through exocytosis in vesicles, such as salivary and sweat glands.

Apocrine glands

Glands that release secretions in the apical cytoplasm, such as mammary and ceruminous wax glands.

Holocrine glands

Glands that release secretions via the loss of the entire cell, such as oil glands.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary, striated, multinuclear muscle that attaches to bone and/or skin.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary, striated, uninuclear muscle found in the heart that contains intercalated discs.

Soma

The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus.

Synapse

The space between a neuron and the effector cell.

Cutaneous membrane

A membrane composed of epithelial tissue attached to connective tissue that acts as the body's first line of defense.

Serous membranes

Membranes found in closed ventral body cavities consisting of parietal and visceral layers with serous fluid in between.

Tight junctions

Intercellular connections that form a nearly impermeable barrier to seal off tissues from extracellular fluid.

Desmosomes

Junctions that form a strong structural network to resist twisting and stretching, providing mechanical strength to the cytoskeleton.

Hemidesmosomes

Connections that use integrins to anchor epithelial cells to the basement membrane (basal lamina).

Atrophy

The wasting away or degeneration of cells or tissue, often due to immobility.

Necrosis

The death of cells or organs due to disease, injury, or insufficient oxygen supply.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death that occurs as a result of normal growth and development.

Fibrosis

The process of scarring after wound healing where original tissue function is typically lost.

Hypertrophy

An increase in cell size, leading to the enlargement of an entire organ.

Hyperplasia

The process of rapid cell division and reproduction.

Metaplasia

A permanent or temporary change in the nature of a particular tissue that can often be reversed.

Dysplasia

The presence of any abnormal cells within a tissue, which may be a sign of early stage cancer.