Infant and Child Development Exam 1

development is

lifelong, multidirectional, multidimensional, characterized by plasticity, and multicontextual

prenatal development (range)

conception through birth

prenatal development (characteristics)

focus on mother’s health – nutrition, teratogens, labor and delivery

infancy and toddlerhood (age)

birth to 2 years

early childhood (age)

3 to 5 years

middle childhood (age)

6 to 11 years

adolescence (age)

12 years to adulthood

nature

genetics and heredity

nurture

environment

epigenetic framework

bidirectional interplay between nature and nurture. suggests that the environment can affect the expression of genes just as genetic predispositions can impact a person’s potentials

stage theorists or discontinuous development

assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from one another in a set, universal sequence

information processing theorists or continuous development

see an adult as not having new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child

active vs passive role in development

are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you?

issues in development

nature vs nurture, continuous or discontinuous, active vs passive role

experiential reality

based on your own history

agreement reality

based on what others have told you or cultural ideas

quantitative research

research guided by a specific question, typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what was studied

qualitative research

theoretical ideas that are grounded in the experiences of the participants. researcher is the student and the participant is the teacher

observational studies

watching and recording actions of participants

experiments

researchers test a hypothesis in a controlled setting to explain how factors or events produce outcomes

3 conditions must be met to establish cause and effect

independent and dependent variables must be related, cause must come before effect, cause must be isolated

case studies

researchers explore a single case or situation in great detail

surveys

as a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. widely used

developmental designs

techniques used in developmental research to try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development

longitudinal research

measuring people of similar age and background repeatedly over a long period of time

cross-sectional research

sample represents a cross section of the population. respondents vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class. respondents are only measured once

sequential research

begins with cross-sectional sample and measures them through time

minor participants require

both minor consent and parent/guardian consent

theory

a proposed explanation for the “how” and “why” of development

theory also

guides and helps interpret research findings. provides researcher with blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies

behaviorism

rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology

Pavlov

classical conditioning and conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

Watson

believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned

B.F. Skinner

operant conditioning. reinforcement and punishment

reinforcer

something that encourages or promotes a behavior

intrinsic or primary reinforcers

natural rewards. value is easily understood

extrinsic or secondary reinforcers

value not immediately understood. can be traded in for what is ultimately desired

positive reinforcement

adding something to encourage a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior

punishment

effort to stop a behavior. following an action with something unpleasant or painful

positive punishment

adding something to stop a behavior

negative punishment

taking something away to stop a behavior

vicarious reinforcement

acting in the same way as someone else because we saw them be rewarded or reinforced for that behavior

Vigotsky’s sociocultural theory

believed a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others

Piaget saw the child as

actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it

Vygotsky saw the child as

more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities

microsystems

impact a child directly. the people with whom the child interacts

mesosystems

interactions between those surrounding the individual

exosystem

larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system

macrosystems

cultural values and beliefs

chronosystem

historical context

polygenic

a result of many genes

multifactorial

result of many factors, both genetic and environmental

environmental correlations

refer to the processes by which genetic factors contribute to variations in the environment

passive genotype-environment correlation

occurs when children passively inherit the genes AND the environments their family provides

evocative genotype-environment correlation

refers to how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited characteristics

active genotype-environment correlation

occurs when individuals seek out environments that support their genetic tendencies. also referred to as niche picking

genotype-environment interactions

involve genetic susceptibility to the environment

genes are the

recipes for making proteins, while proteins influence the structure and functions of cells

polygenic

result of several genes

germinal period (length)

about 14 days

germinal period

conception to egg being implanted in uterine lining. creates the zygote

embryonic disk

inner group of cells. will become the embryo

trophoblast

outer group of cells. becomes the support system which nourishes developing organism

embryonic period (length)

3rd week to 9th week

embryonic period

implantation in uterine wall. now called an embryo

cephalocaudal development

growth from head to tail

proximodistal development

growth from the midline outward

head develops in the

4th week

about _ of organisms fail during the embryonic period

20%

the _ period is the time when the organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances

embryonic period

fetal period (length)

9th week until birth. now referred to as a fetus

by the third month, the fetus has

all its body parts including external genitalia

during the 4-6 months

eyes become more sensitive to light, hearing develops, respiratory continues developing, reflexes (sucking, swallowing, hiccupping) develop

age of viability

24 weeks. first chance of survival outside the womb

between 7-9 months

the fetus is primarily preparing for birth

during the 8th month

a layer of fat develops under the skin that serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body temperature after birth

teratogens

environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects, and include some maternal diseases, pollutants, drugs, and alcohol

factors influencing prenatal risks

timing of exposure, amount of exposure, number of teratogens, genetics, being male or female

4 categories of teratogens

physical, metabolic conditions, infections, drugs and chemicals

women over 35 are more likely to have increased risk of

fertility problems, high blood pressure, diabetes, miscarriages, placenta previa, cesarean section, premature birth, stillbirth, baby with a genetic disorder or other birth defects

teenage pregnancy

greater risk for having pregnancy complications including anemia and high blood pressure. these risks are even greater for those under 15

infants born to teenage mothers have a higher risk for

being premature and having low birthweight or other serious health problems

are the least likely of all age groups to get early and regular prenatal care and may engage in negative behaviors including eating unhealthy food, smoking, drinking alcohol, and taking drugs

teenagers

_ of pregnant women develop gestational diabetes

7%

preeclampsia

high blood pressure and signs that the liver and kidneys may not be working properly

hypertension

high blood pressure. condition in which the pressure against the wall of the arteries becomes too high

gestational hypertension

only occurs during pregnancy and goes away after birth

chronic high blood pressure

women who already had hypertension before the pregnancy or to those who developed it in pregnancy and it didn’t go away after birth

mothers who are Rh negative are at risk of having a baby with

a form of anemia called Rh disease

during pregnancy most women need only an additional

300 calories per day to aid in the growth of the fetus

high levels of stress can cause complications including

having a premature baby or a low-birthweight baby

high levels of stress have been correlated with problems in the

baby’s brain development and immune system functioning as well as childhood problems such as trouble paying attention and being afraid

_ women are treated for depression sometime between the year before and after pregnancy

1 in 7

about _ of women take an antidepressant during pregnancy

13%

offspring of men over 40 face an increased risk of

miscarriages, autism, birth defects, achondroplasia (bone growth disorder) and schizophrenia

ultrasound

one of the main screening tests done in combination with blood tests. it’s a test in which sound waves are used to examine the fetus

transvaginal ultrasounds

used in early pregnancy

transabdominal ultrasounds

more common and used after 10 weeks of pregnancy

amniocentesis

procedure in which a needle is used to withdraw a small amount of amniotic fluid and cells from the sac surrounding the fetus and later tested