PSY 202 - University of Oregon Midterm 1

What is the origin of psychology?

Psychology originated in philosophy, with early speculations about human behavior from Chinese and Muslim philosophers, and debates by Ancient Greek philosophers like Aristotle and Plato.

What is the mind/body problem?

The mind/body problem is a fundamental psychological issue questioning whether the mind and body are separate or if the mind is simply the brain's subjective experience.

What is dualism in psychology?

Dualism is the belief that the mind is entirely separate from and controls the body/brain, a view held by early scholars like René Descartes.

What is physicalism?

Physicalism is the dominant view among modern psychological scientists, asserting that the mind is what the brain does, with no separate immaterial mind.

Who is considered the father of structuralism?

Wilhelm Wundt is considered the father of structuralism, which focuses on breaking down conscious experience into its basic components.

What is introspection in psychology?

Introspection is a method of examining subjective mental experiences by having individuals report on the content of their thoughts.

What are the limitations of introspection?

The limitations of introspection include the subjectivity of experience and the potential for reporting to alter the experience itself.

What is functionalism in psychology?

Functionalism is an approach that focuses on the adaptive purpose of mind and behavior, emphasizing how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.

What is evolutionary theory in psychology?

Evolutionary theory, presented by Charles Darwin, views species' history in terms of inherited adaptive values of physical characteristics, mental activity, and behavior.

What is natural selection?

Natural selection is the process by which mutations that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on to future generations.

What does 'survival of the fittest' mean?

'Survival of the fittest' refers to the idea that species better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce.

What is sexual selection?

Sexual selection is the process by which traits that attract mates are favored, leading to the idea that the most attractive individuals will produce more offspring.

What is psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalysis is a method developed by Sigmund Freud to bring unconscious content into conscious awareness to resolve conflicts.

What are some popular Freudian ideas?

Popular Freudian ideas include repressed memories, defense mechanisms, the Oedipus/Electra complex, psychosexual stages, and dream interpretations.

What is behaviorism?

Behaviorism is a psychological approach that emphasizes observable behavior and the role of environmental forces in shaping it, as developed by John B. Watson.

Who is B.F. Skinner?

B.F. Skinner was a psychologist who expanded on behaviorism, focusing on how behavior is shaped by consequences and developing the principles of operant conditioning.

What was the central issue for behaviorists like Watson?

The central issue for behaviorists was the nature/nurture question, emphasizing that observable behavior was the primary focus of psychological study.

What is the cognitive revolution?

The cognitive revolution is a major movement in psychology that shifted the focus from behaviorism to understanding mental processes.

What role does neuroscience play in psychology?

Neuroscience examines the biological underpinnings of behavior and mental processes, integrating findings from brain research into psychological science.

What is informatics in psychology?

Informatics involves the use of technology and data analysis in psychological research and practice.

What does multidisciplinary mean in psychology?

Multidisciplinary in psychology refers to the integration of various fields and approaches to understand complex psychological phenomena.

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process where behavior is controlled by consequences, such as rewards or punishments.

What is change blindness?

A perceptual phenomenon where a change in a visual stimulus goes unnoticed by the observer.

What are the major movements in psychology?

Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Cognitive Revolution, Neuroscience, Informatics, and Multidisciplinary approaches.

What does cognitive psychology study?

Mental functions such as sensory perception, attention, language, and memory.

What is the significance of the human genome in psychology?

It provides foundational knowledge for studying how specific genes affect thoughts, actions, feelings, and disorders.

What is evolutionary psychology?

A field that explains mental traits as products of natural selection, emphasizing the influence of evolutionary history on behavior.

What are exaptations?

Behaviors or traits that have evolved for one purpose but are used for another, often unrelated purpose.

How does culture influence psychology?

Culture shapes thought and behavior, transmitting norms and practices across generations through learning.

What is a meme in the context of psychology?

A socioculturally transmissible idea or behavior that can replicate and evolve over time.

What are the four levels of analysis in psychology?

Biological, Individual, Social, and Cultural levels.

How can music be studied at the biological level?

By examining how sound, rhythm, and pitch are processed in the brain's auditory system.

What is the individual level of analysis in psychology?

It explores how personal factors, like intelligence and emotions, affect behavior.

What does the social level of analysis focus on?

It examines how social norms and group dynamics influence behavior.

What is the cultural level of analysis?

It investigates how cultural contexts shape behaviors and psychological phenomena.

What is the purpose of the scientific method?

To systematically observe and measure phenomena to answer empirical questions.

What are the four goals of psychological science?

Describe (what), predict (when), control (what causes), and explain (why).

What does the acronym H.O.M.E.R. stand for in the steps of the scientific method?

Hypothesize, Operationalize, Measure, Evaluate, Replicate/Revise/Report.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction often prompted by a theory, used to accept, reject, or revise the theory.

What is the difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

A theory is an explanation that integrates principles and predicts behavior, while a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction.

What is operationalization in research?

The process of defining a measurement for a construct that cannot be directly observed.

What is descriptive research?

Studies that involve observing and classifying behavior without manipulation of variables.

What is correlational research?

Research that examines the relationships between variables to describe or predict outcomes.

What does a correlation coefficient (r) indicate?

The strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0.

What does a positive correlation mean?

As one variable increases, the other variable also increases.

What does a negative correlation mean?

As one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

What is a potential issue with correlational research?

Correlation does not imply causation; it cannot determine if one variable causes changes in another.

What is an example of a case study?

An in-depth study of an individual or group, such as studying Charles Manson to understand murder.

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in its natural setting without interference.

What is the significance of unexpected findings in research?

They can lead to valuable discoveries if researchers recognize their importance.

What is the role of ethics in research methods?

To ensure the integrity and welfare of participants and the validity of the research.

What is the scientific inquiry?

A method of finding answers to empirical questions through observation and measurement.

What is the importance of theories in scientific research?

They provide a framework for understanding observations and guiding research.

What is a common misconception about theories in science?

That they can be proven beyond doubt; theories can only be supported or falsified.

What is the significance of Karl Popper's contribution to scientific theory?

He argued that theories cannot be proven, only tested and potentially falsified.

What is an example of a descriptive method that can be observed without self-report?

Naturalistic observation, such as observing children in a playground.

What is the relationship between temperature and ice cream sales?

As temperature increases, ice cream sales also increase, but this correlation does not imply causation.

What does 'correlation is not causation' mean?

It means that just because two variables are correlated does not mean one causes the other.

What is a spurious correlation?

A spurious correlation is a coincidental relationship between two variables that does not imply a meaningful connection.

What is the purpose of experimental research in psychology?

To isolate causes and their effects by manipulating factors of interest while controlling other variables.

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the experimenter, considered the cause.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured by the experimenter, considered the effect.

What did Zimbardo's anonymity and abuse study find?

Participants who were anonymous delivered twice as many electric shocks compared to those who were identifiable.

What is random assignment in experiments?

The process of randomly placing participants into experimental and control groups to minimize pre-existing differences.

What is random sampling?

Collecting samples from the population at random to maximize representativeness.

What is a convenience sample?

A sample consisting of individuals who are easily accessible for the study.

What are the three key requirements for good research?

Research must be valid, reliable, and accurate.

What is validity in research?

The extent to which an experimenter can confidently make statements about cause and effect.

What are the three types of validity?

Construct validity, external validity, and internal validity.

What is reliability in research?

The degree to which a measure is stable and consistent over time.

What is accuracy in research?

The degree to which an experimental measure is free from error.

What is statistical reasoning?

The use of statistical procedures to analyze and interpret data, revealing insights that may not be immediately apparent.

What are measures of central tendency?

Statistics that summarize a set of data by identifying the central point, including mean, median, and mode.

What is standard deviation?

A statistical index that measures how far most values are from the mean.

What is inferential statistics?

Procedures used to make judgments about whether differences exist between sets of numbers.

What is the importance of replication in research?

Replication tests the external validity of an experiment by repeating it with different populations or settings.

What ethical considerations must researchers follow?

Researchers must respect participants' dignity, ensure privacy, obtain informed consent, and weigh risks against benefits.

What is informed consent?

Participants' right to know the risks and benefits of a study, typically obtained in writing.

What is the role of Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)?

IRBs review proposed research to ensure it meets ethical standards for participant protection.

What is construct validity?

the extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure

What is internal validity?

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds

What is external validity?

the degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations

What is the significance of the 'Mozart Effect'?

It suggests that listening to Mozart may lead to higher intelligence scores, though this claim has been debated and lacks strong replication in diverse samples.

What is the 'cupboard theory of attachment'?

It posits that infants become attached to their parents primarily because they provide food and satisfy their needs.

What is 'imprinting' as observed by Konrad Lorenz?

It is a rapid learning process where young animals, like geese, follow the first moving object they encounter, which is typically their mother.

What are the five infant reflexes mentioned?

Rooting, sucking, grasping, Babinski, and Moro reflexes.

What is 'object permanence'?

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, acquired during the sensorimotor stage.

What characterizes the sensorimotor stage of Piaget's theory?

Information is gained through senses and motor actions; children perceive and manipulate but do not reason.

What are the key features of the preoperational stage?

Emergence of symbolic thought, egocentrism, centration, and difficulty understanding conservation.

What is 'conservation' in child development?

The understanding that certain basic quantities do not change under superficial transformations, which develops in the concrete operational stage.

What abilities are developed in the concrete operational stage?

Better understanding of conservation tasks and reduced egocentrism, but still difficulty with abstract thought.

What defines the formal operational stage in Piaget's theory?

The ability to engage in abstract and hypothetical reasoning, typically developing from age 12 onward.

What is 'theory of mind'?

The ability to explain and predict others' behavior by recognizing that they have different mental states.

What is the significance of the study by Melzoff & Moore (1977)?

It demonstrated that newborns can imitate adult expressions, although later studies questioned the replicability of these findings.

What is the 'orienting response' in infants?

The tendency to pay more attention to novel stimuli, which helps researchers understand infant capabilities.

What did William James mean by 'a booming, buzzing confusion' regarding infants?

He described the chaotic sensory experience of infants as they perceive their environment.

What are some innate abilities of infants on their first day?

They can orient to sounds, turn away from unpleasant odors, and prefer sweet to sour tastes.

What is egocentrism in child development?

The tendency of children to view the world solely from their own experiences and perspectives.

What is the main critique of Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

Later research suggests that cognitive abilities may develop earlier and are not as sharply divided as Piaget proposed.

What is the focus of developmental psychology?

It examines how children make sense of the world, form relationships with caregivers, and learn language.