SFB important stuff

Erythrocyte

Red Blood Cell

Loop of Henle

A part of the kidney that helps make concentrated pee by moving water and salt.

Veins

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart, usually low in oxygen.

Bone Marrow

Soft tissue inside bones that makes blood cells like red cells, white cells.

Na/K Pump

Action Potential

A protein that uses ATP to move 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in, helping keep the cell’s charge and balance.

Net Production of Glycolysis

Breakdown of 1 glucose makes 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate.

What is the pH of a 0.0001 M HCl solution?

If [H⁺] = 10^{-x}

Then pH = x

Answer: pH = 4

Hydrogen Bonding

A strong intermolecular force between a hydrogen atom bonded to F, N, or O and the lone pair of another F, N, or O atom.

How do you calculate electric field (E) between two plates?

Use E = V / d,

Where V = voltage, and d = distance in meters.

Frequency of the light Equation

f=c/λ

Where:

• f = frequency (in Hz)

• c = speed of light = 3.0×10^8 m/s

• λ = wavelength (in meters)

Destructive Phase

Opposite peaks → 180° out of phase

Constructive Phase

Same peaks → 0° or 360° in phase

What are somatic cells?

All body cells except sperm and egg cells.
They divide by mitosis and can develop cancer if they mutate.

G₁ phase

Cell grows

S phase

DNA is copied

G₂ phase

Cell gets ready to divide

M phase (Mitosis)

Cell divides

Cytokinesis

Cell splits into two

Interphase (the resting/prep stage)

G₁, S, and G₂

What are antibodies?

Proteins made by the immune system that recognize and attach to foreign invaders (like bacteria or viruses) to help destroy them.

Leukocytes

A white blood cell that helps fight infection as part of the immune system.

Vasoconstriction

Blood vessels tightening.

What is the formula that relates frequency and period?

T=1/f

• T = period (in seconds)

• f = frequency (in Hz = cycles per second)

Harmonics

Higher versions of a sound wave that occur at regular multiples of the first (fundamental) wave.

• Frequency increases as you go up
  → 2nd harmonic = 2× frequency, 3rd = 3×, etc.

• Amplitude decreases as you go up
  → Each harmonic is smaller than the one before.

Amplitude

Height of the Wave

• how strong or loud the wave is.

• Bigger BLANK = louder sound (or more energy).

Frequency

How often the wave repeats

• How fast the wave vibrates.

• Measured in Hertz (Hz) = how many cycles per second.

• Higher BLANK = more cycles per second = higher pitch.

Polar Molecule

Uneven sharing of electrons,

so one part of the molecule is slightly positive and another part is slightly negative — like a magnet with two ends.

Nonpolar Molecule

Even sharing of electrons, so there’s no charge difference across the molecule.
▶ Example: Oxygen gas (O₂), Methane (CH₄)

What are Dipole-Dipole forces?

Attractions between molecules that have permanent partial charges (polar molecules)

(like C=O, N-H, O-H, C-Cl).

What are London Dispersion Forces (LDF)?

Temporary attractions between nonpolar molecules or parts of molecules.

Found in all molecules, but only force in nonpolar ones like O₂ or CH₄

Polar bonds

(like C=O or O-H) and an asymmetrical shape so the charges don’t cancel out.

Ebulliator

A tool that adds tiny bubbles to a liquid so it boils evenly and doesn’t get too hot.

Vacuum distillation

A technique that lowers pressure to reduce boiling points, allowing compounds to distill at lower temperatures.

Fractional distillation

Separation of compounds based on differences in boiling point, using a column that increases separation efficiency.

Boiling point increases with pressure and decreases with lower pressure (like in a vacuum).

Boiling point and pressure relationship

What is osmotic pressure?

Water moves toward the side with more stuff dissolved to try to equalize the concentrations. BLANK is the force that drives that water movement.

What is extracellular fluid

Fluid outside cells, like plasma and interstitial fluid, that helps with transport.

Glucose

A simple sugar used by cells for energy

Glycogen

A storage form of glucose found in the liver and muscles; broken down into glucose when energy is needed.

Insulin

Hormone secreted by pancreatic β-cells; lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake into cells.

Glucagon

Hormone secreted by pancreatic α-cells; raises blood glucose by promoting glycogen breakdown in the liver.

Hemoglobin

Protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.

If found in plasma, it means red blood cells broke open (hemolysis).

Conjugation

Direct transfer of DNA between bacteria using a sex pilus.

Requires the F factor plasmid.

Transformation

Bacteria take in free DNA from the environment.

Transduction

DNA is transferred between bacteria by a virus (bacteriophage).

Translocation

Moving part of a chromosome to another, usually in eukaryotes.

F factor plasmid

A special DNA circle that lets bacteria form a sex pilus for conjugation.

Sex pilus

A straw like that one bacterium uses to send genetic material to another.

Negative pressure breathing

A type of breathing where the chest expands, lowering pressure in the lungs, so air is pulled in.

✅ It's how humans and other mammals breathe.
💨Air flows in because pressure inside the lungs is lower than outside.

Avogadro’s Number

6.022×10^23 particles/mol

1 L

1000 mL

Acids

donate H⁺

Bases

accept H⁺ or donate OH⁻

1. HCl – hydrochloric acid

2. HBr – hydrobromic acid

3. HI – hydroiodic acid

4. HNO₃ – nitric acid

5. HClO₄ – perchloric acid

6. H₂SO₄ – sulfuric acid (only the first H⁺ is strong)

Strong Acids

NaOH,

KOH,

LiOH,

Ca(OH)₂,

Ba(OH)₂,

Sr(OH)₂

Strong Bases

Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

Tip to remember:
Carbonate + Acid → CO₂ + H₂O

What gas forms when a carbonate reacts with an acid?

Carbonate

A compound that contains the CO₃²⁻ ion.
Example: Na₂CO₃

Transition metal ions, because of their unfilled d orbitals that absorb visible light.

What type of ions form colored solutions and why?

Triglyceride

A lipid made of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids

Nonpolar compound (moves far with solvent)

High Rf

Doppler Effect

Frequency ↑, Wavelength ↓

The change in frequency or wavelength of a wave when the source or observer is moving.

Moves toward you?

About 3×10^8

(300,000,000 m/s).

Speed of Light (radio waves, light, etc.) in Air or Vacuum:

343 m/s

Speed of Sound in Air (at room temperature):

Glycolysis Overview

• Turn 1 glucose into 2 pyruvates

• Each glucose also yields 2 net ATP

  (creates 4 but consumes 2 ATPs)

Location:

• Cytoplasm

Hexokinase

Makes G6P to prevent glucose from leaving the cell

PFK-1

• rate limiting enzyme in Glycolysis

  • Determines speed

  • Commitment step

2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP Overall reaction for Glycolysis

1 glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP →

Lactic Acid Fermentation

• Use up pyruvate to create ATP indirectly in absence of oxygen by RECYCLING NAD+ so glycolysis can keep going

Alcoholic Fermentation

• Use up pyruvate to create ATP indirectly in absence of oxygen by RECYCLING NAD+ so glycolysis can keep going

Location: Cytoplasm

Only for bacteria!

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC)

To turn pyruvate into acetyl CoA so that CAC can begin

Location: mitochondrial matrix

Products Per Glucose: 2 pyruvate --> 2 NADH and 2 Acetyl CoAs

Krebs Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle (CAC) Overview

Further breaks down acetyl-CoA (which is from the original glucose) to make MORE NADH and FADH2

Location: Mitochondrial matrix

Main metabolites (intermediates) of the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) in order.

C — Citrate
I — Isocitrate
K — α-Ketoglutarate
S — Succinyl-CoA
S — Succinate
F — Fumarate
M — Malate
O — Oxaloacetate

"Can I Keep Selling Sex For Money, Officer?"

Electron Transport Chain Overview

• To generate a ton of ATP using the NADH and FADH2 that we have made from the other pathways

• Helps to recycle BOTH NAD+ and FAD so that metabolism can run again with more glucose molecules

SI Base Units

Length m

Mass kg

Time S

Temperature K

Amount of Substance mol

“The Great Mighty King Henry Died By Drinking Chocolate Milk Until Nine P.M.”

Tera 10^12

Giga 10^9

Mega 10^6

Kilo 10³

Hecto 10²

Deca 10^1

Deci 10^-1

Centi 10^-2

Mili 10^-3

Micro 10^-6

Nano 10^ -9

Pico 10^ -12

Normal Force FN

Force of surface pushing up against the object

Weight Force mg

Force of gravity pulling down on the object

Applied Force Fa

Whatever force you are exerting on the object.

Friction Ff

Force opposing motion.

Fₙₑₜ = ma?

It’s the general equation for net force and acceleration.

Fₘₐₓ = μₛN?

Equation for force for surface has static friction (object is not moving yet).
This gives the maximum possible friction before motion starts.

When do you use Fₖ = μₖN?

Equation for force between the sun and planets (or two large obejcts)

Passive Membrane Transport 2 types

No energy Needed

High to Low concentration

Osmosis

Passive movement of H20 Molecules

Simple Diffusion

Passive movements of non H2O molecules (Solutes)

Small, non-polar, and or low charge molecules

Facilitated Diffusion

Method for passively moving larger molecules that cant simply diffuse

Hypotonic Cell (Hypertonic Solution)

More solutes OUTSIDE the cell

More H2O INSIDE the cell

Hypertonic Cell (Hypotonic Solution)

More solutes INSIDE the cell

More H2O OUTSIDE the cell

Active Membrane Transport (2 Types)

Transport Driven by ENERGY USEAGE

Primary Diffusion

Uses ATP to move L to H concentration

EX: Na+/K+ pump ( 3 Na out and 2 K+ in) Low to High

Secondary Transport

Use the energy from Passive Transport of something to activity transport something else

Uniporters

Passiev diffusion

Symporters

Moving Together in the same direction

Antiporters

Moving in the opposite direction

Endocytosis

Cell eating or drinking

Pinocytosis

Cell Drinking

Phagocytosis

Cell Eating

Exocytosis

Cell Pooping

Dispositional Attribution

Thinking someone did something because of their personality or who they are.

Example:
If someone is late and you think, “They’re just lazy,”