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Cerealization
Term comprising many agricultural practices allowing Europeans between 1000 and 1300 to cultivate most of the land in Europe: crop rotation, use of draft animals, addition of iron blades to ploughs, and the spread of water and wind mills.
Crusader
Term, literally meaning "one who is signed by the cross", indicating anyone who attached a cross to his or her clothes as a sign of belonging to a large, volunteer force against Muslims. Between 1095 and 1291, eight different groups of Crusaders traveled to the Holy Land in the hope of capturing Jerusalem.
Feudal
The legal and social system in Europe from 1000 to 1400 in which subordinates performed military service for their lords, and the lords offered them protection in return. The term came into use after 1600 as a legal concept.
Friars
All members of the begging orders established in Europe between 1100 and 1200, of which the Franciscans were the best known.
Great Western Schism
(1378-1417) Dispute that divided the Roman Catholic church, in which two, sometimes three, men claimed to be the legitimate pope. The French kings backed the popes living in Avignon; the English king supported the pope in Rome.
Guilds
Associations formed by members of the same trade that that regulated prices and working hours and covered members' burial costs. Only those who belonged to the guild could engage in whatever type of business the guild regulated.
Heloise
(circa 1090-1163/64) French nun who wrote many letters to Peter Abelard, her former lover and the father of her child Astrolabe, which survive in the Letters of Abelard and Heloise.
Heresy
The offense of believing in teachings that the Roman Catholic Church condemned as incorrect.
Hundred Years' War
(1337-1453) War between the English and French fought entirely on French soil. At the end of the war, the kings of England and France had gained the power to tax and to maintain a standing army.
Inquisition
Special court established by the pope to hear charges against those accused of heresy. The inquisition used anonymous informants, forced interrogations, and torture to identify heretics. Those found guilty were usually burned at the stake.
Liberal arts
Basic core of the curriculum in Europe between 500 and 1500 that consisted of the trivium (logic, grammar, and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music theory).
Parliament
literal meaning "to talk." Name for the different councils that advised the English kings and approved the king's request for taxation.
Peter Abelard
(1079-1042 or 1044) Prominent scholastic thinker who wrote about his affair with Heloise in his autobiography, The Story of his Misfortunes.
Scholasticism
Prevailing method of instruction in Europe between 1000 and 1500. Held that students could arrive at a correct answer if they used their powers of reasoning to derive the answer from multiple citations of classical sources and the Bible.
Simony
The sale of church office in Europe. Since church office was considered sacred, its sale was a sin.
Thomas Aquinas
One of the most famous scholastic thinkers, belonged to the Dominican order. He wrote a book juxtaposing the teachings of various church authorities on various difficult questions.
