Learning/Conditioning

Behavioral perspective

One of the seven modern psychological approaches or perspectives that emphasizes that human behaviors and mental processes are shaped primarily by learning through reinforcements, punishments, and observation.

Learning/Conditioning

A relatively permanent change in an animal's behavior or mental processes that is the result of experience or environmental influences.

Stimulus

Any factor in the environment that causes a reaction.

Cognition

The mental actions or processes of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought or thinking.

Response

Any reaction by an organism, either involuntary (classical conditioning) or voluntary (operant conditioning).

Habituation

A type of conditioning in which organisms demonstrate weaker responses to a stimulus that has repeatedly, but not continuously, been presented, indicating they have become used to or familiar with that stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning involving pairing a previously neutral stimulus with an unlearned stimulus to generate a learned involuntary response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

An environmental factor that triggers an unlearned, involuntary reaction.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

An unlearned, involuntary reaction caused by the unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

An environmental factor that does not cause the reaction being studied before learning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned, involuntary reaction after being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned, involuntary reaction caused by the conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The beginning phase in both classical and operant conditioning when learning takes place. In classical conditioning, this stage involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus triggers a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, it's when a behavior is reinforced or punished, influencing the likelihood of the behavior occurring again in the future.

Stimulus Discrimination

In classical conditioning, this is when an organism learns to respond only to the exact conditioned cue and not to other similar stimuli. In operant conditioning, it is when an organism learns to respond only to the specific signal that has been reinforced and ignores other similar signals.

Stimulus Generalization

In classical conditioning, this occurs when an organism responds to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned cue, even if they are not identical to the original stimulus. In operant conditioning, it happens when a learned behavior is performed in response to cues that resemble the one originally reinforced.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the process by which the conditioned response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior decreases because reinforcement is no longer provided.

Spontaneous Recovery

In classical conditioning, this is the sudden return of a conditioned response after a period of no exposure to the conditioned stimulus, even after the response had diminished. In operant conditioning, it is the unexpected reappearance of a previously extinguished behavior following a break in exposure to the reinforcement or behavior itself.

Higher-Order Conditioning

The process in classical conditioning of turning a second neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus by pairing it with an already established conditioned stimulus.

Law of Effect

An early precursor to operant conditioning that a voluntary behavior followed by a positive outcome will be repeated, while a voluntary behavior followed by failure will not be repeated.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where voluntary behavior changes based on the consequences that follow, involving reinforcements and punishments.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a voluntary behavior recurring.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a voluntary behavior recurring.

Positive Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, adding a desirable stimulus after a voluntary behavior to increase its likelihood in the future.

Negative Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, removing an undesirable stimulus after a voluntary behavior to increase its likelihood in the future.

Positive Punishment

In operant conditioning adding an undesirable stimulus after a voluntary behavior to decrease its likelihood in the future.

Negative Punishment

In operant conditioning removing a desirable stimulus after a voluntary behavior to decrease its likelihood in the future.

Shaping

A process in operant conditioning in which closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced.

Primary Reinforcer

An innately or naturally reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

Secondary Reinforcer

A learned stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with a primary reinforcer, such as money.

Continuous Reinforcement

The process of reinforcing a voluntary behavior every time it occurs leads to rapid learning and rapid extinction if reinforcement stops.

Partial Reinforcement

The process of reinforcing a voluntary response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement given after a set number of correct behaviors, resulting in high response rates with short pauses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement given after a changing number of correct behaviors, leading to high and steady response rates.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement given for the first correct response after a set period of time, creating lower response rates until just before reinforcement.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement given for the first correct response after a changing period of time, creating moderate and consistent response rates.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not demonstrated until there is a reason to perform the learned behavior.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of an environment, enabling navigation and recall of spatial information.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of a problem's solution without trial and error, demonstrating cognitive involvement in learning.

Learned Helplessness

A state of passive behavior resulting from a belief that one's actions have no impact on the environment, often linked to feelings of helplessness and depression.

Social (Observational) Learning

Learning new skills, knowledge, and behaviors by watching and imitating others.

Modeling

Imitating the behavior of another individual who serves as a model.

Vicarious Conditioning

Learning through observing the consequences of others' behaviors, influencing one's own behavior based on observed outcomes.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food or liquid after it becomes associated with illness or nausea, often requiring only one pairing.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to innate behaviors even after learning a new behavior through conditioning.

One-Trial Learning

A form of learning where a behavior is acquired after only one exposure to a stimulus, often associated with strong outcomes like pain or nausea.

Biological Preparedness

The evolutionary predisposition of organisms to easily learn behaviors that aid survival, such as developing fears of potentially dangerous situations or animals.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

A controlled environment used in experiments to study operant conditioning in animals, often featuring levers or keys for the animal to manipulate and a mechanism to deliver reinforcement or punishment.

Relearning

In classical conditioning, this is the quick re-establishment of a conditioned response after it has faded. Previous conditioning allows the response to return more rapidly. In operant conditioning, it involves reinforcing a behavior again after it has decreased, making the behavior reappear faster than during the initial learning phase.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach or perspective in psychology highlighting mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving as essential in understanding learning and behavior.

Learned Optimism

The idea that positive thinking can be developed as a skill, enabling more constructive responses to challenges.

Prosocial Behavior

Voluntary actions executed with the intent of benefiting or helping another person(s). These can be used through modeling therapy to create behaviors that benefit others or one's community, such as helping, donating, volunteering, and sharing.