Midterm for Anatomy

Anatomy

the physical structures and internal parts of the human body

physiology

The functions of our body

cytology

study of cells

histology

Study of tissues

hierarchy of life’s organizational levels from simplest to most complex & from most complex
to simple

atom, molecule , organelles, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem,

biosphere

fundamental unit (building block) of matter & fundamental unit of living things

atom

Homeostasis

the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and
thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Dynamic equilibrium in homeostasis

the body's internal environment stays relatively stable by constantly making small adjustments

homeostatic mechanisms- feedback loops

Negative feedback loops reverse a change to bring a variable back to its normal target value. (Blood sugar control, temperature regulation)

Positive feedback loops push a system further away from its starting point instead of pulling it back to a balance. (blood clotting, childbirth)

Receptor

structure that senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors above heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating (control) center

control center that processes the sensory information, “makes
a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)

Effector

cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., the heart)

Gradient

a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

what flows down concentration gradients

Chemicals

What flows down electrical gradients

charged particles

What flows down thermal gradients

heat

Computed tomography

Known as (CT)

slice-type (cross-sectioning) imaging of bones, organs, and soft tissues

Used to identify cancers, investigate symptombs, blood clots, disease, phnemonia

Magnetic resonance imaging

Know as (MRI)

Superior quality to CT scans

used to get very clear, detailed pictures of the inside of the body without using radiation

Checks for strokes, Brain injuries, heart damage, Bone damage, internal organ damage

Positron emission tomography scan

Known as (PET)

to see how your organs and tissues are working at a cellular level by tracking chemical activity (tumors, epilepsy)

– Assesses metabolic state of tissue
– Distinguishes tissues most active
at a given moment
– Mechanics—inject radioactively
labeled glucose

2 types of energy

kinetic energy - energy of motion

potential energy - stored energy

6 Bulk elements in the human body (from most to least)

• Oxygen (O)

• Carbon (C)

• Hydrogen (H)

• Nitrogen (N)

• Calcium (Ca)

• Phosphorus (P

Electrons

negatively charged subatomic particle that normally orbits the central nucleus of an atom

protons

a stable, positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of every atom

neutrons

subatomic particles with no electric charge that reside in the nucleus of almost every atom alongside protons

atomic number

the total number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom

Atomic mass

This is the actual measured mass of an atom, usually expressed in atomic mass units (amu)

how to determine number of protons

looking at the element's atomic number on the periodic table

atomic number = number of protons

How to determine number of neutrons

subtract the atomic number from the mass number

How to determine number of electrons

Number of electrons = atomic number

minerals & electrolytes

specific minerals that carry an electrical charge when dissolved in body fluids like blood or sweat

ion

an atom or molecule that has a net electrical charge because it has gained or lost one or more electrons

cation

Positively charged ions. They form when an atom loses electrons, leaving it with more protons than electrons. Metals often form cations.

anion

ionization

ionization

the physical process by which an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons, transforming into a charged particle known as an ion

molecules

a group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

compounds

a pure substance made of two or more different elements chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio

Functions of the skeleton

support, protection, movement, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, hematopoiesis (blood cell production in red bone marrow)

Bone (Osseous tissue)

Connective Tissue with the matrix hardened by calcium and other minerals

Flat bones

thin curved plates, protect soft organs

Ex: skull bones, ribes, sternum

Two layers of compact bone enclosing a middle layer of spongy bone

long bones

longer than wide, acted upon by muscles, crucial for movement,

Ex: arm and leg bones

Short bones

approximately equal in length and width, glide across one another

Ex: wrist and ankle bones

irregular bones

everything else

Ex: vertebrae and pelvic bones

Compact bone

Dense outter shell of osseous tissue that covers surface of all bones

Spongy (cancellous) bone

Found in ends of long bones and in middle layer of nearly all other bones

Long bone features (diaphysis)

shaft of the bone

Long bone features (medullary cavity (marrow cavity))

space in the diaphysis of a long bone that contains bone marrow

Long bone features (Epiphyses)

enlarged ends of a long bone

Articular cartilage (Bone anatomy)

layer of hyaline cartilage that covers join tissue

• prevents friction

nutrient foramina (Bone anatomy)

small holes in bones surface where blood molecules enter and exit

periosteum (Bone anatomy)

external sheath covering most of bone

Endosteum (Bone anatomy)

thin layer of tissue lining marrow cavity

• has cells that dissolve osseous tissues and others that deposit it

Diploe

Spongy middle layer found in flat bones

Surrounded by two layers of compact bone

Osteoenic cells (bone cells)

stem cells in endosteum and inner layer of periosteum

osteoblasts (bone cells)

bone forming cells

Basts = building

form single layer of cells under endosteum and periosteum

produce organic matrix which then hardens by mineral deposition

Osteoclasts (Bone cells)

bone resorbing cells found on bone surface

Think C for cutting

Osteocytes (bone cells)

Former osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they deposited

Maintaining and regulating what’s happening in the bone

Found in Lacunae (tiny cavities in the bone)

Organic (osteoid) matrix

secreted by osteoblasts

• collagen + carbohydrate - protein complexes

• Give us Tensile (flexible) strength

Inorganic matter in matrix (bone)

• 85% hydroxyapatite

• remaining portion (fill in spaces between collagen fibers) : calcium carbonate + other minerals

• Hardness and rigidity

Osteon ( haversian system)

structural functional unit of compact bone

Concentric lamellae ( haversian system) components

Concentric lamellae surrounded a central haversian canal running longitudinally

Perforating (Volkmann ) canals (Haversian system)

transverse or diagonal passages

Spicules (spongy bone)

Slivers of bones

Trabeculae (spongy bone)

Thin plates of bone

Red bone marrow

• produces red blood cells

• in all marrow spaces of infants

• in adults, found in axial skeleton + proximal heads of humerus and femur

Bone marrow

soft tissue occupying marrow cavities of long bones and small spaces of spongy bone

yellow marrow

found in adults only

• fatty marrow that does not produce blood

Ossification or osteogenesis

the formation of bones

intramembranous ossification

formation of bone from a flat sheet of embryonic connective tissue

• produces flat bones *

• Ex: skull, ribs, sternum

endochondral ossification

formation of bone from a cartilage model

• applies to long bones

primary ossification center

One that appears first and in middle of bone

secondary ossification center

ends of cartilage model,

epiphyseal plate

thin wall of cartilage separating the primary and secondary marrow cavities, separated epiphyses and diaphyses of growing bones

Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate (interstitial growth) and increase in thickness through appositional growth

Found in the metaphysis at the end of long bones (the growth plate)

endochondral ossification

the biological process where bone tissue is created by replacing a preliminary model made of hyaline cartilage

Wolffs law

PTH & calcitonin mechanism