Unit 1

Catholic church legitimacy challenge

questioning authority/morality of the Catholic Church, particularly during the Renaissance period, emerging humanist ideas and reformist movements began to challenge influence. fueled by growing discontent over corruption, selling of indulgences, and the entanglement in political affairs, that undermined its spiritual authority and led to calls for reform.

City-states

independent sovereign entities that consist of a city and its surrounding territory. political autonomy, economic prosperity, and cultural significance, centers of trade, art, and intellectual activity. fostered the revival of classical knowledge and the flourishing of the arts that defined this vibrant period.

Donatello

renowned Italian sculptor of the Early Renaissance, known for his innovative techniques and expressive figures. His work significantly contributed to the development of Renaissance art, showcasing a blend of classical themes and humanist ideals that transformed sculpture during this period. ex. David statue

Florence

major city in Italy that played a pivotal role during the Renaissance, known for its cultural, artistic, and economic advancements. center of trade and finance, Florence birthplace of Renaissance art and humanism, attracting renowned artists and thinkers who transformed European culture.

Geometric perspective

artistic technique that creates the illusion of depth and three-dimensional space on a flat surface. uses mathematical principles to establish a vanishing point and converging lines, allows artists to depict more realistic landscapes and architectural structures, which were key elements in the art of the Italian Renaissance.

Humanist values

importance of human dignity, individual potential, and the pursuit of knowledge and understanding through reason and experience. flourished during the Italian Renaissance, influencing art, literature, and education by encouraging a focus on classical texts, critical thinking, and the potential of the human spirit.

Individualism

Social and political philosophy that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual and prioritizes personal freedom and self-reliance. encourages people to think for themselves and pursue their own interests, often seen as a reaction against collectivist ideologies and traditions.

Italian renaissance

cultural movement Italy, 14th to the 17th centuries, renewed interest in the classical arts and humanities.advancements in art, literature, philosophy, and science, influenced by the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts and ideas. laid the groundwork for modern Western culture and set the stage for significant developments in the Age of Discovery.

Lorenzo valla (15th century)

Italian humanist, scholar, critical approach to texts, contributed to the study of classical literature. emplifies the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, humanism, critical thinking, and the pursuit of knowledge based on classical texts. 'On the False Donation of Constantine,' challenged the authenticity of a document that had been used to justify papal authority, analysis and historical context

Michelangelo

Italian sculptor, painter, architect, embodied the ideals of humanism and artistic excellence. sculpture and painting, showcase a deep understanding of anatomy and a passion for portraying human emotion. ceiling of the Sistine chapel and statue of David

Milan

northern Italy major city, crucial role in Italian Renaissance, center of art, culture, and political power. wealth and influence, hub for prominent artists, thinkers, and political leaders, drove innovative spirit of the era. important center for trade and commerce, enhancing its significance in shaping Renaissance ideals.

Naples

southern Italy , rich cultural heritage, vibrant art scene, significant center during the Italian Renaissance. strong connections to both the Spanish Crown and the influence of local nobility, shaping the artistic and intellectual developments of the period.

Naturalism

philosophical viewpoint and artistic movement, depiction of reality based on observation, belief that everything arises from natural properties and causes. portray subjects as they are, focuses on effects of environment and heredity on individuals, connecting to broader themes like human experience/the natural world.

Printing press

mechanical device invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, revolutionized the production of books and written materials, allowed for mass printing. crucial role in spreading ideas, facilitating literacy, and influencing cultural and religious changes across Europe during the Renaissance and Reformation.

Raphael

master painter and architect of the High Renaissance, renowned for his harmonious compositions and clarity of form. His work epitomizes the ideals of beauty and balance that defined the artistic principles of the period, making significant contributions to the development of Western art through his innovative techniques and portrayals of human emotion.

Secularism

separating religion from political, social, and educational institutions, prioritizes reason and empirical evidence, allowed for new ways of thinking about human existence, governance, and science, growing trend toward individualism and critical inquiry during significant historical periods.

Venice

city in northeastern Italy, unique canals, rich cultural heritage, and significant role during the Italian Renaissance. major center for trade, art, and politics, heavily influencing the development of Renaissance culture and economics in Europe.

Christian humanism

emerged during the Renaissance,human values and ethics grounded in Christian teachings. reconciled classical humanism with a focus on religious faith and moral integrity. study of classical texts alongside the Bible, aimed to reform society through education and moral improvement.

Erasmus

Dutch Renaissance humanist, scholar, critical approach to church doctrine advocated for reform within Christianity. 'In Praise of Folly,' highlighted the need for a return to simple Christian values and laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation, Northern Renaissance.

Norrhern Renaissance

cultural and artistic movement, Northern Europe ,late 15th and 16th centuries, distinct from the Italian Renaissance. emphasized the use of oil painting, detailed realism, and focus on everyday life, incorporated religious themes and humanist ideas that stemmed from classical antiquity, similar to those seen in the Italian Renaissance.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

16th-century Flemish painter known for his vibrant and detailed landscapes and genre scenes that depict peasant life, morality, and human folly. His work is a hallmark of the Northern Renaissance, showcasing a blend of realism and symbolism, along with a focus on everyday life rather than religious or classical themes, which was typical of the era's art movement.

PRotestant reformation

religious movement in the 16th century that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the creation of various Protestant denominations. It challenged the authority of the Pope, criticized church practices like the sale of indulgences, and emphasized personal faith and scripture, significantly impacting European society, politics, and religion.

Rembrandt van Rijn

Dutch painter and etcher, widely regarded as one of the greatest artists in European art history, known for his masterful use of light and shadow, emotional depth, and innovative compositions. His work epitomizes the artistic achievements of the Northern Renaissance and the Dutch Golden Age, showcasing the intricacies of human emotion and the subtleties of everyday life.

Effects of the printing press

widespread transformations in society, culture, and knowledge that occurred following its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. This revolutionary technology drastically increased the production and distribution of books, leading to greater literacy rates and the democratization of knowledge. The printing press played a critical role in the spread of ideas during the Renaissance and Reformation, fostering an environment where intellectual and religious challenges to established authorities could flourish.

Gutenberg bible

, printed in the 1450s by Johannes Gutenberg, is recognized as the first major book produced using movable type printing technology in Europe. This revolutionary work not only marked a significant advancement in the printing process but also played a crucial role in the spread of literacy and the ideas of the Renaissance and Reformation across Europe.

95 theses

document written in 1517 that criticized the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. This work is often credited with sparking the Protestant Reformation, as it was widely printed and disseminated thanks to the advancements in printing technology. Luther's bold challenge to church authority not only questioned the integrity of religious practices but also highlighted the growing demand for reform within the church and society.

Protestant reformation

religious movement in the 16th century that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the creation of various Protestant denominations. It challenged the authority of the Pope, criticized church practices like the sale of indulgences, and emphasized personal faith and scripture, significantly impacting European society, politics, and religion

Renaissance

cultural, artistic, and intellectual movement that began in Italy during the 14th century and spread throughout Europe, marking the transition from the medieval period to the modern age. This era is characterized by a revival of classical learning, humanism, and innovations in art, science, and literature that significantly transformed European society.

Scientific revolution

period from the late 16th century to the 18th century during which new ideas in science emerged, fundamentally changing the way humanity understood the natural world. This era marked a shift from a reliance on religious explanations and classical authorities to empirical evidence and the scientific method, influencing various fields such as astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor from 1519 to 1556 and King of Spain from 1516, representing one of the most significant political figures in European history during the 16th century. He ruled over an extensive empire that included vast territories in Europe and the Americas, which made him a central figure during critical conflicts such as the Protestant Reformation and the Wars of Religion

Charles VII

King of France from 1422 to 1461, known for his significant role in the Hundred Years' War and the establishment of a stronger French monarchy. His reign marked the turning point in France’s struggle against English dominance, with pivotal events such as his coronation at Reims and the involvement of Joan of Arc. Charles VII is often associated with the rise of new monarchies that sought to centralize power and strengthen royal authority.

Concordat of Bologna

agreement reached in 1516 between King Francis I of France and Pope Leo X that defined the relationship between the French crown and the Catholic Church. This concordat allowed the French king to have significant control over church appointments and the administration of church properties in France, thereby strengthening the power of the monarchy while also providing the Church with financial benefits.

Edict of Nantes

a decree issued in 1598 by King Henry IV of France, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants) and ending the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants in France. This edict was significant in establishing a framework for coexistence between the two groups, reflecting the broader context of political and religious conflicts in Europe during this period

Elizabeth I

e Queen of England from 1558 until her death in 1603, known for her strong leadership and the Elizabethan Era, a period marked by English cultural flourishing and expansion. Her reign is often associated with the consolidation of Protestantism, significant political stability, and military victories, notably against Spain.

English reformation

religious movement in the 16th century that resulted in the Church of England breaking away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. This pivotal change not only reshaped religious practices in England but also influenced political power dynamics, social structures, and sparked further Protestant reforms across Europe.

Ferdinand of Aragon

pivotal monarch in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, known for his role in the unification of Spain and the establishment of a powerful centralized monarchy. He ruled alongside his wife, Isabella I of Castile, and their marriage laid the foundation for the modern Spanish state, which significantly influenced European politics during the New Monarchies period.

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547, best known for his six marriages and the English Reformation, which established the Church of England. His reign marked a significant shift in religious and political power, influencing various aspects of European history during the Renaissance and the Reformation.

Huguenots

French Protestants, primarily Calvinists, who faced severe persecution in predominantly Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Their struggles for religious freedom and civil rights contributed to significant conflicts in France and helped shape the landscape of religious and political tensions during the Reformation and Wars of Religion.

Hundred Years War

series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over territorial disputes and claims to the French throne. This prolonged struggle significantly influenced the development of national identities in both countries and shaped the political landscape of late medieval Europe, coinciding with the rise of new monarchies that emerged during this period.

Isabella of Castille

Queen of Castile and León from 1474 until her death in 1504. She is best known for her role in the unification of Spain and for sponsoring Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition, which led to the discovery of the Americas. Her reign marked a significant shift toward centralized power in Spain, aligning with the trends of new monarchies that emerged in Europe during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Jean Bodin

French political philosopher from the 16th century, best known for his theory of sovereignty, which emphasized the absolute power of the state and its ruler. His ideas significantly influenced the development of modern political thought and laid the groundwork for the concept of absolute monarchy, connecting to both the emergence of new monarchies and the establishment of absolutist regimes in Europe.

King Hentry IV

first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, reigning from 1589 until his assassination in 1610. His reign marked a significant turning point in France, as he worked to unify a nation divided by religious conflicts and established the foundations for a stronger centralized monarchy.

Machiavelli

Italian diplomat, philosopher, and writer best known for his political treatise, 'The Prince.' His work is significant for introducing a pragmatic and sometimes ruthless approach to political leadership, emphasizing the importance of power and realpolitik over moral considerations. Machiavelli's ideas were influenced by the social and political changes during the Renaissance, particularly in the context of emerging nation-states and the decline of feudalism.

Peace of Augsburg

treaty signed in 1555 that ended the religious civil war between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. This agreement allowed each prince to determine whether their territory would be Catholic or Lutheran, thereby establishing a precedent for religious self-determination in the region and reflecting the broader religious conflicts of the time.

Pope Leo X

216th pope of the Roman Catholic Church, serving from 1513 to 1521. He is best known for his lavish lifestyle, patronage of the arts, and significant role in the events leading up to the Protestant Reformation, particularly his opposition to Martin Luther's reform efforts. His papacy is marked by the tension between traditional Catholic authority and the rising challenge posed by Protestant reformers.

Protestant Ideals

core beliefs and values that emerged from the Protestant Reformation, which emphasized personal faith, the authority of Scripture, and the priesthood of all believers. These ideals challenged the traditional Catholic Church's practices and hierarchical structure, promoting a more individualized approach to spirituality and governance that resonated with the rise of new monarchies during the late 15th to early 17th centuries.

Spanish inquisition

religious tribunal established in 1478 by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile aimed at maintaining Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms. This institution became notorious for its severe methods, targeting converts from Judaism and Islam, as well as other groups considered heretical, playing a significant role in shaping the religious and political landscape of Spain during the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

Amerigo Vespucci

Italian explorer and navigator who played a significant role in the Age of Exploration by demonstrating that the lands discovered by Europeans were part of a separate continent, which later became known as America. His voyages, particularly to South America, provided critical information about the geography of the New World and contributed to the shift in European perceptions about the Americas as new territories rather than extensions of Asia.

Balance of trades

difference in value between a country's exports and imports over a specific period. It plays a crucial role in determining a nation's economic health, influencing currency values, trade policies, and relationships with other countries, particularly during the Age of Exploration when European powers competed for dominance in global trade routes and resources.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer and navigator whose voyages across the Atlantic Ocean in the late 15th century led to the European awareness of the American continents. His expeditions, sponsored by Spain, marked the beginning of the Age of Exploration and established lasting European contact with the Americas, significantly impacting global trade and culture.

Mercantilism

economic theory that emphasizes the importance of a nation's wealth as measured by its holdings of gold and silver. This theory posits that national strength comes from maintaining a positive balance of trade, where exports exceed imports. It emerged prominently during the Age of Exploration as European powers sought to increase their wealth and power through colonial expansion and control over trade routes.

Portugals exploration

maritime endeavors by the Portuguese during the 15th and 16th centuries, marking a significant era of global exploration and colonization. This period is characterized by advancements in navigation, shipbuilding, and cartography, which enabled Portugal to establish trade routes and colonies in Africa, Asia, and South America. These explorations were driven by a combination of economic interests, religious motivations, and a desire for knowledge, which profoundly influenced global trade dynamics and European power structures

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese royal prince, soldier, and patron of explorers, instrumental in the early stages of the Age of Exploration during the 15th century. His efforts significantly advanced maritime knowledge and exploration, leading to the discovery of new territories along the African coast and ultimately opening sea routes to India and the Americas. By establishing a navigation school in Sagres, he contributed to technological advancements in shipbuilding and navigation techniques, which played a crucial role in the Renaissance's push for exploration.

Slave trade in Portugal

transatlantic trade of enslaved Africans, which was a critical aspect of Portuguese colonial expansion from the 15th to the 19th centuries. This trade allowed Portugal to establish significant economic wealth through the exploitation of enslaved labor on plantations and in mines across its colonies, especially in Brazil and Africa. The practice not only had profound social and economic implications but also contributed to the shaping of racial dynamics and the legacy of colonialism in the Atlantic world.

Spains exploration

period of extensive overseas exploration undertaken by Spanish navigators and conquistadors during the 15th and 16th centuries. This era was marked by Spain's pursuit of new trade routes, territorial expansion, and the quest for wealth, particularly through the discovery of gold and silver in the Americas.

Taino indians

indigenous people who inhabited the Caribbean islands, primarily in present-day Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica. They played a significant role during the Age of Exploration as one of the first indigenous groups encountered by European explorers, particularly Christopher Columbus, in the late 15th century. Their culture and way of life were deeply affected by European colonization, leading to dramatic population declines and cultural changes.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who is best known for being the first European to reach India by sea, linking Europe and Asia via the ocean route. His successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 opened up a new era of global trade and marked a significant milestone in the Age of Exploration, paving the way for European powers to establish colonial empires in Asia.

Asiento System

trade agreement established in the 17th century, primarily between Spain and other European powers, that granted the right to supply enslaved Africans to Spanish colonies in the Americas. This system became crucial in shaping the transatlantic slave trade, as it created intense competition among colonial rivals who sought economic gains from the lucrative sugar and plantation economies.

Calvinism

branch of Protestantism that follows the theological teachings of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the authority of scripture. It significantly influenced the development of various religious and political movements across Europe, shaping societies in both religious and secular contexts.

Dutch East India Company

stablished in 1602, was a powerful trading corporation that played a significant role in global commerce during the 17th century. It was granted a monopoly on Dutch trade in Asia and became a key player in the competition for colonial dominance, significantly impacting both the economy of the Netherlands and the larger context of European exploration and imperialism.

Saint-Domingue

major sugar-producing colony in the Caribbean that became the first successful slave-led revolution, ultimately gaining independence from France in 1804. This event marked a significant moment in world history, highlighting the struggle against colonialism and influencing various revolutionary movements across the globe. later known as Haiti

King Charles II of Spain

last Habsburg ruler of Spain, reigning from 1665 to 1700. His rule is significant for its connection to the broader struggles of European powers for colonial dominance, particularly as his death without an heir led to the War of Spanish Succession, a pivotal conflict involving several European nations vying for control over Spanish territories and influence.

King Louis XIV of France

Sun King, was the monarch of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. He is celebrated for his long reign and for establishing the absolute monarchy that characterized France during his rule, significantly influencing European politics and colonial rivalries.

Seven Years War

a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and often regarded as the first 'world war.' This war significantly reshaped colonial rivalries and geopolitical landscapes, leading to Britain's emergence as a dominant global power, while also highlighting the shifting alliances and balance of power in Europe and beyond.

Treaty of Paris

series of agreements that concluded various conflicts, most notably the American Revolutionary War in 1783, establishing peace between Great Britain and the United States. These treaties marked significant shifts in colonial power dynamics and territorial claims, influencing later political structures and international relations.

Treaty of Tordesillas

agreement made in 1494 between Spain and Portugal that divided newly discovered lands outside Europe. It aimed to resolve disputes over territories claimed during the Age of Exploration, establishing a line of demarcation that granted Spain control of lands to the west and Portugal control of lands to the east.

Treaty of Utretcht

series of agreements signed in 1713 that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, involving multiple European powers. It marked a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe, redistributing territories and establishing principles that would guide future international relations, impacting colonial rivalries and the economic landscape during the early 18th century.

War of the Spanish Succession

1701-1714) was a major conflict that arose over who would inherit the Spanish throne after the death of the childless Charles II of Spain. The war involved several European powers, including France, Spain, England, the Dutch Republic, and Austria, as they battled over the potential unification of the French and Spanish crowns under the Bourbons, which threatened the balance of power in Europe. This conflict had significant implications for colonial rivalry as it extended to overseas territories, impacting trade routes and colonial holdings.

Colombian Exchange

widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, diseases, and culture between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492. This exchange significantly transformed both continents, impacting economies, populations, and societies in profound ways.

Middle passage

horrific transatlantic journey that enslaved Africans were forced to endure when being transported to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade. This journey was marked by overcrowded ships, inhumane conditions, and high mortality rates, all of which highlight the brutal realities of the slave trade and its economic implications.

Transatlantic Slave trade

massive forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, where they were enslaved to work primarily on plantations. This brutal system not only led to the suffering of countless individuals but also significantly shaped the economies and societies of Europe, Africa, and the Americas, creating interconnected markets that defined global trade during that era.

Abolition movement

movement advocating for the end of slavery, gaining momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries. Enlgihtenment thinks and religious groups advocated for this.

Bank of Amsterdam

established in 1609, was a central bank that played a crucial role in the financial revolution of the early modern period. It facilitated international trade by providing a stable currency and secure deposit facilities, which helped to boost commerce and investment during the Commercial Revolution. Its innovative banking practices set the standard for modern banking systems across Europe.

British East India company

powerful trading corporation established in 1600, which played a crucial role in the expansion of British trade and colonial influence in India and beyond. As a key player during the Commercial Revolution, the company helped lay the foundations for global markets and contributed significantly to Britain's ascendancy as a world power, while also fostering intense rivalries with other colonial powers and shaping economic practices during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Capitalism

economic system where private individuals or businesses own capital goods and are responsible for producing goods and services for profit. This system promotes competition, innovation, and the free market, significantly influencing various historical contexts and developments.

Commercial Revolution

period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism from the late 13th century to the early 18th century, characterized by the growth of trade and commerce. This transformation was driven by factors such as increased exploration, the establishment of overseas colonies, and the rise of a capitalist economy, which reshaped social structures and created new economic practices.

Enclosure movement

significant agricultural transformation in England during the 18th and 19th centuries, characterized by the consolidation of small landholdings into larger farms, which were then enclosed with fences or hedges. This shift from communal to private farming altered agricultural practices, increased productivity, and led to significant social changes, including rural depopulation and urban migration.

Double-entry bookkeeping

accounting method that records each financial transaction in two accounts, ensuring that the accounting equation remains balanced. This system revolutionized financial record-keeping by providing a comprehensive overview of a company's finances, facilitating better decision-making and accuracy in financial reporting during the Commercial Revolution.