Psychology Key Terms paper 1

Test on definions of key terms for Memory, Development, Research Methods, Perception

Memory

The process by which we retain information about events that have happened in the past

Short-term memory

Capacity: 7 items.

Duration: 15-30 seconds

Acoustic coding

Long-term memory

Unlimited capacity

Up to a lifetime

Semantic coding

Encoding

Information taken into the memory is changed into a form that can be stored and later recalled.

Storage

Holding information in the memory system for use at some point in the future

Retrieval

When we need the information - it is located and brought back.

Recognition

Noticing information that you have seen before

Cued recall

Remembering something because something 'jogged' your memory

Free recall

Remembering something by your own effort without help, you do not need any cues/clues.

Episodic memory

Recollections of personal experiences or events - 'time stamped'.

You need to consciously recall these memories.

Associated with the right prefrontal cortex

Procedural memory

Stored knowledge and information that we use for carrying out complex motor skills.

We do not need to consciously think about how we do these skills.

Associated with the motor cortex.

Semantic memory

Recollection of general knowledge

We need to consciously think about how we do these skills

Declarative memory

Memories that require conscious recall

Non-declarative memory

Memories that do not require conscious recall

Capacity

A measure of how much information is held in a memory store.

Duration

The length of time information can be held in memory.

Sensory register/memory

Has a large capacity but short duration. Coding is related to specific sense organ, e.g. eyes/nose etc

MSM (Multistore Model)

(Atkinson & Shriffin, 1968) 3 kinds of memory - sensory, STM and LTM. An explanation of how information moves from one memory store to the next.

Primacy Effect

When more of the first information received is recalled than later information.

Recency Effect

When more of the last information received is recalled than earlier information.

Serial Position Effect

Recall of a list of words in which the words at both the beginning and end of the list are well recalled but those in the middle are not recalled well

Culture

A community of people who share the same customs, beliefs and behaviours.

Reconstructive memory

Changing or filling in gaps in our recollection of experiences or information so that it makes more sense to us.

Effort after meaning

People recalled the general meaning not the specific details.

Interference

Forgetting information because other memories get in the way, this is especially likely to occur if two memories are very alike.

Proactive interference

past memories inhibit an individual's full potential to retain new memories.

Retroactive interference

newly learned information interferes with the recall of previously learned information

Context

The surroundings for an event, thought or memory which enable these things to be more fully understood and may act as a cue to recall.

False memories

Remembering something that has never happened but feels as if it did.

Perception

How we organise, interpret and make sense of the sensory information that we receive from the world around us.

Sensation

Information from the world around us that we receive through our sense organs: Physical stimulation of sense receptors by the environment (light striking retina or sound waves processed by ear).

Visual cues

Environment features that give us info about movement, distance and location of objects.

Constancies

Ability to see object the same even if the actual image received has changed - e.g. we move closer to it.

Monocular depth cues

Ways of perceiving depth/distance that can be detected with one eye.

Height in plane

Distant objects are seen or shown as being higher in the visual field in relation to items that are nearer.

Relative size

The larger objects in the visual field appear to be closer than the smaller objects.

Occlusion

When an object covers part of another object, this makes it appear to be closer.

Linear perspective

When parallel lines appear to converge or join together at some point in the distance. The further away the road, the more the lines converge.

Binocular depth cues

Ways of perceiving depth or distance that need two eyes.

Retinal Disparity

The difference between the sensory information received through each eye which is the result of the slightly different angles they have of the world.

Convergence

Depth perception that uses the extent to which eye muscles have to work, in order to focus on images/objects.

Motion Parallax

A monocular depth cue. Motion parallax helps us understand speed of movement. Close objects in our visual field seem to move more than objects that are further away in our visual field.

Visual illusions

Whereby an image appears to be other than it actually is because of an incorrect or mistaken interpretation of sensory information from the eyes.

Ambiguity

Being able to be interpreted or understood in more than one way. There are 2 possible interpretations of the same image. Brain cannot decide which one to pick.

Fiction

When an object, colour or movement is perceived but the construction is not actually there. Figure suggests something - but it is not actually there.

Size Constancy

A tendency or inclination to perceive an object as being the same size, regardless of whether it is nearby or far away.

Ponzo illusion

Example of a misinterpreted depth cue. The converging lines give the impression of distance - higher line looks longer because it looks like it is further aware. We apply 'size constancy' (distant things = smaller), which mentally enlarges it and makes the top look bigger than the bottom.

Muller-Lyer

Misinterpreted depth cue. We perceive the 'outgoing' line to be closer to us. We scale it up - making it appear longer.

Rubin's Vase

Ambiguous figure. Both are correct your brain cannot decide which to pick.

Ames Room

One person appears gigantic in comparison to the other. Due to the shape of the room - it is not square it is a trapezoid. Misinterpreted depth cue.

Kanizsa Triangle

Would appear to be 2 triangles, 1 overlapping the first. But there is not a second triangle. Brain adds that in. The shapes suggest a contour that is not there - illusory contours.

Necker Cube Illusion

2D shape that looks 3D. Can be perceived as pointing upwards to the right or downwards to the left.

Nature

Refers to aspects of behaviour that is inherited/genetically influenced.

Nurture

Refers to aspects of characteristics and behaviours that are influenced by upbringing, environment and experiences.

Perceptual Set

A tendency or inclination to observe some aspects of sensory information from the world around us, but to not notice other aspects of it.

Culture

A community of people who share the same customs, beliefs and behaviours.

Motivation

Physiological and psychological drives and needs that we experience and that can affect a person's choices, actions and perception.

Emotion

Moods or feelings that an individual experiences.

Expectation

Beliefs or feelings about what it is that we will experience.

Misinterpreted depth cue

When a 'depth cue' (which tells us about distance etc) is used incorrectly.

Affordances

Gibson says that we can tell what we can use an object for because of its physical properties e.g. shape, texture etc.

Optic Array:

Everything we can see at any one time, gives us all the information we need to judge depth, distance and movement. (Gibson)

Optic flow patterns

When you are moving, where you move towards stays stationary. But your surroundings seem to move. (Gibson)

Inference

Brain makes an educated guess and fills in the gaps using visual information from the environment (Gregory)

Perceptual Hypothesis

use the most probable explanation for the visual information we've received (Gregory)

Mistaken Hypothesis

Our brain has drawn the wrong conclusion using current evidence. (Gregory)

Bottom up

innate due to evolution - no learning required. We need it to survive.

Top-down

Use context to help us understand things

Thalamus

The part of the brain that relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex and acts as a centre for pain perception. Info hub.

Cerebellum

A small, wrinkled structure at the base of the brain above the spinal cord. Coordinates motor movement, dexterity, and balance and has a role in cognition

Cortex

The outer layer of the brain where higher cognitive functions, such as speech, occur.

Autonomic functions

Bodily functions that happen without our conscious control - such as breathing, digestion and heart rate. Controlled by the brain stem.

Sensory processing

The brain and nervous system receives sensory information from the world around us and turns it into appropriate responses.

Movement

Changing your body's location or position. 'Motor activity'. Motor area of the cortex is present at birth but we cannot walk. Sensorimotor coordination then begins to develop after birth.

Cognition

Mental Processes such as thinking, planning, problem solving

Cognitive development

The way a person's knowledge, thinking and intelligence changes as they get older.

Assimilation

When we receive new information or experience a new situation, a type of learning that causes us to add new information to an existing schema.

Accommodation

When we receive new information or experience a new situation, a type of learning happens that causes us to change an existing schema or developing a new schema.

Sensorimotor stage

0-2 years: Focus on physical sensations & developing physical co-ordination. A lot of trial & error. Relating their sensations (sensory) to their movement (motor). Learn objects exist separately from people. Learn doing X will cause Y. Start to develop object permanence.

Pre-operational stage

2-7 years: Children are pre-logical thinking. Pre-operational children do not understand that other people do not see/hear/feel exactly the same way they do. Struggle to understand the appearance of something can change, but quantity remains the same.

Concrete operational stage

7-11 years: Most 7 year olds can decentre and conserve. Acquired the ability to reason. But - only applies to physical objects that are there. Still struggle with abstract ideas.

Formal operational stage

11+ years: Focus on the form of the argument - not the content. Test hypotheses using logic. Once they can do this - scientific reasoning. Understand abstract ideas.

Egocentrism

Child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view.

Decentring

Can see a situation from another person's point of view.

Conservation

Understanding the physical appearance of something can change, but quantity remains the same.

Fixed Mindset

A belief that achievements are due to innate abilities/genetics/unchanging factors. If you cannot do something there is no point trying harder because you simply have not got the ability. People with a fixed mindset give up if they fail. Motivate by good results, medals, prizes - performance orientated. Only happy if doing well.

Growth Mindset

A belief that even the most basic abilities can be developed through effort. People with a growth mindset regard failure as a challenge. Focus on learning goals - happy if they are working hard.

Praise

To express approval or admiration of someone else and or what they have done. Praise is rewarding and increase motivation.

Self-efficacy

The belief in your own capabilities to succeed at a task or to produce certain levels of performance.

Verbalisers

Someone whose preference is to process information by speaking and listening.

Visualisers

Someone whose preference is to process information by looking at it.

Kinaesthetic learners

Someone whose preference is to process information by touching it and doing things.

Learning styles

The different ways in which a person can pick up and process information and knowledge

Readiness

Can't teach certain activities before a child is biologically capable.

Discovery Learning

Work out concepts individually by exploring, acting like a little scientist. Needs to be active rather than passive. and activities should challenge students - need to accommodate and assimilate.

Individual Learning

Everyone goes through stages in order but at different rates. Activities should be individual activities to account for differences in readiness. Classroom activities should be arranged for individuals as well as groups of children & not simply whole class teaching.

Self-regulation

Controlling your behaviour (emotions/attention/thoughts).

Brain stem

Controls autonomic functions. Most highly developed part of the brain at birth.

Nature

characteristics and behaviours are genetically influenced

Nurture

characteristics and behaviours are influenced by upbringing, environment and experiences.